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COPYIJIGHT DEPOSrr 



FOOD AND CLOTHING 



BY 

LENO OSBORNE 

SUPERVISOR OP TIFF, DEPARTMENT OF HOME EOONOMTCS, 
PUBLIC SCHOOLS, OKLAHOMA CITY, OKLAHOMA 




CHICAGO NEW YORK 

ROW, PETERSON & COMPANY 






Copyright, 1914 
ROW, PETERSON & COMPANY 



SEP d\ 1914 

OCU'380476 



PREFACE 

The course contains material for the first one hundred 
and forty lessons to be taught in foods, cookery, diet, 
textiles, and clothing. The number of lessons given per 
week and the length of time taken for each recitation 
will determine the number of school years it will require 
to complete the course. 

In schools without laboratories, if three Theory les- 
sons are given per week, with three Practice lessons of 
home-work required, the course may be finished in two 
years. 

It makes very little difference whether the teaching 
of this subject is first introduced in the fifth or a later 
grade. The beginning lessons should 1)p the same ; that 
is, those presenting : 

The classification of the difi^erent foods. 

The building materials they contain. 

The efi^ect heat and moisture will have upon them. 

The planning, cooking, and serving of meals with 
regard to "balanced rations." 

The composition and manufacture of difi^erent cloths. 

The making of plain and useful garments. 

The appropriateness of material and style to occasion. 

The present day Physiology treats the subjects of sani- 
tation and digestion so completely that it is not necessary 
to repeat but to correlate with them. In the Agriculture 
we find the growth, cultivation, and care of most of our 
food stuffs, simply and clearly explained ; the Geography 
takes up the adaptation to climate, and the commercial 
side of these subjects. Teachers by this correlation may 



6 PREFACE 

save the time of at least two recitations per day — a valu- 
able feature in a crowded program. 

Language Lessons, or Composition work, might often 
be selected from these subjects with gratifying results. 

The subject matter has been arranged in chapters for 
a matter of convenience, but it is not the intention that 
they be taught in the order given unless the season of 
the year so dictates. For example the chapter on vege- 
tables should be divided and the fresh vegetable lessons 
be presented in the spring and the dry vegetables in the 
winter ; the sugar lessons at Christmas time ; the meat 
lessons and dry fruits and vegetables in the winter. 

In the "Suggestions to Teachers" it is the aim to 
discuss very plainly the hoiv of presenting these subjects. 

The aim of this course is to give the student the prin- 
ciples of the selection and preparation of food ; a study 
of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, with the effect of 
heat upon them ; a study of meats and vegetables with 
a comparison of animal and vegetable foods and ways of 
preparing and combining them ; the cost of the different 
foods in comparison with the building material each con- 
tains ; laboratory work which teaches how to perform 
the various duties of the home with the greatest efficiency 
and the least expenditure of effort. 

For many helpful suggestions and for assistance in 
proofreading, the author expresses cordial appreciation 
to Misses Helen Bishop, B. S., Columbia University ; 
Alice Blair, B. S., Columbia University ; Leaffa Randall, 
B. S., Kansas A. M. College ; Helen Allison, Kansas M. T. 
School ; and Kathryne IMaxwell of Oklahoma City. 

Leno Osborne. 
Oklahoma City, 
Oklahoma, May, 1914. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Suggestion to Teachers 8 

CHAPTER 

FIRST YEAR 

I Home Economics, Instructions to 

Pupils, Food, Cooking 15 

II Milk 26 

III Eggs As a Food (protein) 33 

IV Vegetables (carbohydrates) 39 

V Sugar (carbohydrate) 53 

VI Meats— Beef, Pork, Fish 62 

VII Cheese (protein) 82 

VIII Cereals (carbohydrates) 86 

IX Flour (in combination) 93 

X Beverages 110 

XI Table Setting and Service 118 

XII Canning, Preserving, Pickling (ster- 
ilization ) 121 

second year 

XIII Eggs As a Thickening Agent (protein) . 130 

XIV Beef, Game, Fowl 136 



8 CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XV Warmed-over Dishes 144 

XVI Fats and Oils 150 

XVII Bacteria — Yeast 159 

XVIII Cakes 167 

XIX Soups and Salads 177 

XX Fruits 189 

XXI Sherbets and Ice Creams 196 

XXII Dietary Standards 201 

XXIII Planning and Serving IVIeals. House- 

hold Expenses 209 

domestic art 

XXIV Textiles 216 

XXV Plain Sewing 218 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

If it were possible for all teachers who must 
teach Domestic Science to have training in the 
theory and practice of the subject, the following 
suggestions would hardly be necessary. But ob- 
servation has taught us that a carefully planned 
text, with general directions for class manage- 
ment, in the hands of resourceful and energetic 
teachers, can bring about results far superior to 
those of the trained teacher who lacks initiative. 

It makes little difference how well or how poorly 
equipped the instructor is for presenting this sub- 
ject, the most essential qualifications in her are 
resourcefulness, system, good judgment and per- 
sonal cleanliness. 

No woman can arouse in girls the proper inter- 
est in this subject unless she is interested in it 
herself. The teacher who makes the assertion that 
she does not enjoy any phase of housekeeping or 
of the preparing of meals, should not be allowed 
to teach Domestic Science. Her pupils may be 
able to pass an examination, but they will never 
be able to make the house a home, and she must 
be able to lead girls to feel that they cannot do a 
better thing than to give their time and energy 
to the care and maintenance of this home. 

9 



10 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

Personal cleanliness of the teacher has a great 
influence upon the girls. No woman can inspire 
the proper interest in this subject, if she appears 
before her class in a soiled dress or apron, or with 
unclean hands and nails. Large white aprons 
over woolen dresses may be tolerated where the 
work occupies only a minor portion of the day, 
but the careful teacher will wear a wash-dress, 
preferably white. The woolen dress collects odors 
and dust, often full of bacteria, and in the kitchen 
these may be the cause of harmful results. The 
teeth should be clean and the breath free from 
bad odors. 

The P^quipment 

The object of equipment in this work is three- 
fold: to prepare food for cooking, to furnish the 
vessels w^hich contain the food while it is being 
cooked, and to supply heat. Elaborate equipment 
has very little to do with good results. 

One teacher succeeded with this purchased 
equipment for each of her pupils: one 12 inch pan, 
one 6 inch pan, one pie tin, one knife, one fork, 
one tablespoon, one tin cup; all costing 40c. The 
large pan served as a dishpan, as a vegetable pan, 
and, by placing the smaller one in it and using 
the pie tin for a lid, as a double boiler. The fork 
was used in place of an egg beater. A baking 
powder can was used as a biscuit cutter and a pop 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 11 

bottle for a rolling pin and a maslier. A piece of 
window screening was cleaned with gasoline, 
shaped over an inverted pan and used as a sifter. 
These, besides a stove, and tables and cupboards 
made of boxes, furnished the equipment for a 
school kitchen. The results were so gratifying 
that the patrons were anxious to have money 
spent towards the furnishing of a modern labor- 
atory. 

A teacher in a rural district borrowed a tent 
from one family, an old stove from another and 
whatever could be loaned from the various homes 
in the way of dishes and cooking utensils. These 
she kept in a locked box which was carried out 
to the tent-kitchen every morning and each day 
four pupils prepared, under her direction some 
one thing for the lunches of the other pupils. 

When a laboratory is to be fully equipped and 
the teacher is inexperienced, it is wise to consult 
the director of a larger or an older school as con- 
ditions vary so greatly tliat it is not wise to give 
specific directions which are to be used generally. 

Class Management Where There Is No Equipment 

In rural schools where all practical work must 
be done at home, tlie teacher should, as each new 
subject is presented, lead the pupils to become 
interested in its production (from agriculture) ; 
its adaptation to climate and its commercial value 



12 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

(from geograpliy) ; its food classification (domes- 
tic science) ; the effect of the digestive fluids upon 
it (physiology) ; the effect of heat upon it (moist 
or dry), and the various ways it may be prepared 
by itself or in combination to make it palatable 
and digestible (domestic science). 

The number of lessons for this Avill depend upon 
the time given at each recitation. The recipes in 
the Domestic Science text are for small amounts, 
individual proportions unless otherwise stated. 

Help the students to figure the amount they 
must prepare for the number of people at home. 
Use the time of several lessons for reports as to 
the results of the home-work, and if any failures 
are reported, help them to find from their text 
the cause and the means of prevention. Lead 
them by questions from their Physiology and 
Domestic Science texts to make food selections 
suitable for body building, and emphasize con- 
tinually the dangers of allowing appetite to gov- 
ern food consumption. 

If possible study and prepai'e the quick-grow- 
ing perishable vegetables and fruits in the spring 
and fall seasons, leaving the dry vegetables, 
grains, fruits and meats for the winter months. 

Class Management 

The order in the room depends upon conditions. 
Usuallv there is no occasion for conversation 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 13 

among pupils, especially if the equipment is in- 
dividual. Working in groups is by no means a 
satisfactory method and does not bring about the 
best results. Pupils de])end upon each other in- 
stead of developing independent judgment and 
self-reliance. 

Housekeepers 

There is so much general work to do in a lab- 
oratory that it is necessary to have some extra 
help after each lesson. The girls who are ap- 
pointed to do this work are called "house- 
keepers." This is the only general housekeeping 
work that most school kitchens oft'er and it should 
be under close supervision. The duty of each 
housekeeper and the number needed will depend 
upon the equipment. These duties should last 
only during one lesson, and care should be exer- 
cised that the appointments come in regular rota- 
tion with a change of duties. The following sug- 
gestions may be helpful : 

Housekeeper No. 1 — Put away supplies. Clean the 
supply table. Clean the ice box and keep in order. 

Housekeeper No. 2 — Wipe out all the drawers and 
shelves in the laboratory not in special charge of any 
one else. Clean the faucets, strainers and soap dishes. 

Housekeeper No. 3 — Clean the sinks and all stoves not 
used during the lesson. 

Housekeeper No. 4 — Inspect cupboards and drawers 
and report missing utensils. Inspect towels, tea-kettles, 



14 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

etc., and report any disorderly condition in the 
laboratory. 

The Lesson 

It is practically impossible to conduct a Domes- 
tic Science lesson in the lahuratory in less than 
ninety minutes, even though the theory or chem- 
istry part is given at a separate period. A few 
directions must be given, the lesson prepared, 
criticisms offered, and failures, if any, explained, 
with means of prevention reasoned out. Dishes 
and utensils must be washed and tow^els scalded 
and placed to dry.- 

Each girl's part in the cleaning of the labor- 
atory after a lesson is one of the most valuable 
of the hour. A pupil who is not corrected for 
leaving her dishes improperly scalded and dried, 
her stove not clean, or her equipment out of 
place, has lost an essential part of every labora- 
tory lesson, — those of order and neatness and 
cleanliness. 

It is best for the teacher to have all supplies 
out and ready for use when the pupils come to 
the room. This is considered one of the very 
important parts of lesson preparation. 



FIRST YEAR 

CHAPTER I 

HOME ECONOMICS 

Home economics. This term is applied to tlie 
scientific study of all matters pertaining to the 
healthy, efficient, enjoyable home life. Within 
its scope is included the study of chemistry, bac- 
teriology, plant life; the home, its location, ar- 
rangement, furnishings and ventilation; househohl 
management, which includes not only the study 
of how to perform the various duties of the home 
with the greatest efficiency and least expenditure 
of effort, but how to maintain the mental and 
physical health of those in the home; physiology 
of digestion ; sanitation ; care of the sick ; cookery 
of food ; textiles and clothing. 

So great is the importance of this subject to 
the home, and to the welfare of those in the home, 
that colleges have extended the completion of the 
course over four years of time. We, with less than 
one hundred recitations, can give the subject 
under only two heads: 

Domestic science, which includes the study of 
food, its source, nutrition, cost and cookery; the 

15 



16 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

physiology of digestion; tlio scientific planning 
and serving of meals with reference to "balanced 
rations," or the amount of food necessary, under 
specified conditions, to supply the body with 
building material. 

Domestic art, the scientific study of clothing 
from the standpoint of health and comfort; tex- 
tiles, with reference to their various sources, 
weaves, and colors; garment making, including 
the appropriateness of the style to the wearer and 
the occasion. 

IXSTKrCTTOXS TO PUPILS 

In tite Laboratory 

Each girl should have: 

A clean apron, preferably white. 

A small hand towel fastened to tlie l)elt. 

A nail file. 

A small hag or purse to liold rings. l)racelets. etc. 

Girls should ^vear, if possible, clean wash 
dresses. The dangers of the Avoolen dress in the 
kitchen may be very great. A girl often wears 
the same dress for weeks ; and, since the pupils 
come from many different homes, having varied 
conditions, possibly diseases, the woolen dress is 
likely to be a germ carrier. 

Place great stress upon clean hands and nails. 



HOME ECONOMICS 17 

The hands should be washed, the nails cleaned, 
then the hands washed again before beginning to 
prepare a food. 

Things to Reme^fber When Cooking 

1. Read the recipe carefully before beginning 
to prepare the dish. Determine the fewest pos- 
sible utensils with which you can prepare this 
food and do not use more. Avoid the very bad 
habit of so many housekeepers, that of soiling 
every dish in the kitchen when preparing a meal. 

2. Keep all dishes and other utensils washed 
and in the smallest possible space. 

3. Plan your work so as to save steps. ' ' Con- 
servation of strength'* should be the watchword 
of every housekeeper. 

4. Do not use your apron for a towel, a lifter, 
or in place of a handkerchief. Many women who 
consider themselves neat, wipe their hands and 
face on their apron and then use it for removing 
dishes from the oven, handling pans, etc. 

5. Keep your hands absolutely clean duriug 
the lesson. Wash them after you have used the 
handkerchief or had them on your face or hair. 

6. "When tasting a food to determine its sea- 
soning, place a portion in a spoon with the mixing 
spoon. Do not place a spoon that has been in 
the mouth in food. Many years ago, before people 



18 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

knew the dangers of infection from the hreath, 
women would blow their breath on portions of 
food to cool it for the children, or would blow 
back the cream from a vessel containing milk 
when they wanted only the milk. Read the chap- 
ter in your physiology, ''The Air Passages and 
the Lungs," and reason from that, why any of 
these careless habits are very dangerous to the 
health of those about us. 

7. Do not eat particles of food while cooking. 
A housekeeper who minces over her food as she 
cooks it does not take the proper interest in its 
preparation or service. 

To Wash Dishes 

1. Scrape all food particles from the dishes. 

2. Rinse the dishes before placing them in the 
dish water. 

3. Dishes or vessels which have had egg or 
flour mixtures in them should be rinsed in cold 
water. 

4. Dishes or vessels which have had greasy 
foods or syrup in them should be rinsed in boiling 
water. 

5. Pack like dishes and cooking vessels to- 
gether. 

6. Wash in this order: glass, silver, china, tin, 
crockery, iron. Place in another pan, scald each 
division and dry before washing the next. When 



HOME ECONOMICS 19 

placing tlieiii in the draining pan to be scalded, 
place each dish inside up. Why? 

7. Have two dish cloths, one for dishes and one 
for cutlery. Scald the cloths before hanging away 
to dry. 

Drying towels should be scalded after each us- 
ing, or hung in the sun to sterilize. Too mucli 
importance can not be given to having clean, 
pure, sanitary dish cloths and towels. 

FOOD 

A food is any substance which, when taken into 
the body, builds tissue, and produces heat and 
energy without directly or indirectly injuring the 
cells. 

Foods are divided into five classes: 

1. Proteins. The tissue or lean meat builders, 
which may also be used to produce heat, are ob- 
tained from lean meat, eggs, milk, cheese, fish, 
dry peas and beans, wheat, oats, and in small 
amounts from any cereal except rice. Each 
food has its own specific kind of protein, yet all 
have the general characteristic of coagulating at 
a low temperature and hardening and contracting 
at a high temperature. The protein in milk and 
cheese is known as casein; in eggs as albumin; 
in wheat as gluten; in peas and beans as legumen; 
in lean meat as myosin; in blood as fibrin. 

All protein foods should be cooked at a tem- 



20 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

perature below the hoiliny point to insure ease 
in digestion. 

2. Starches and sugars, carbohydrates. These 
fatty-tissue builders and heat producers are 
obtained from fruits, vegetables and cereals. 

Almost all plants have their own kind of starch, 
as corn starch, rice starch, wheat starch, potato 
starch, etc. Commercial sugar is obtained from 
sugar cane and the sugar beet. We obtain sugar 
also from fruits, milk, corn, cereals, sweet pota- 
toes, and peas. 

3. Fats and oils. The decided heat producers 
are fats and oils. In a small way they produce 
fatty-tissue. We obtain most of these from but- 
ter, meats, nuts, salad dressings, cheese, milk and 
chocolate. The digestive organs can take care of 
only a limited amount of these at a time; there is 
great danger in over-eating. 

4. Minerals. Some inorganic materials such 
as salt, lime, iron and sulphur are valuable in the 
building of the solids of the body and the blood. 
They are obtained from fruit, vegetables, grains 
and animal foods. 

5. Water acts as a solvent and is necessary 
in the fluids of the body. 

Balanced Rations 

To take within our bodies, each day, the proper 
proportion of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, 



HOME ECONOMICS 21 

and, on tlie other hand, have these in sufficient 
quantities to meet the needs of the various condi- 
tions brouglit about by climate and vocation, is 
called '* balanced rations." So important is a 
thorough knowledge of balanced diet to every boy 
and girl that a chapter will be devoted to it later, 
under "Dietary Standards." 

Accessories 

Numerous other substances are taken into the 
body which are not foods, but in food combina- 
tion add to the attractiveness of the dishes by 
giving odor and taste. These are: 

Flavors. The various oils and essences, as van- 
illa, lemon, etc. 

Stimulants. Alcohol, tea, coffee, cocoa, beef tea. 

Condiments. Salt, pepper, mustard, spices. 

In other chapters these will be treated more 
fully, but too much emphasis cannot be placed 
upon the injurious effects of the over-use of these 
accessories. 

COOKING 

Cooking is the preparation of food by means of 
heat to develop new flavors, or to make it more 
palatable and digestible, and to destroy micro- 
organisms. 



22 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

]\Iethods of Cooking 

Baking is cooking by means of dry, confined 
heat. 

Roasting really means exposing food to the di- 
rect rays of a fire. Before the invention of ovens 
all foods not cooked in water were roasted, but 
now it is very unusual to taste a piece of roasted 
food. Meats spoken of as roasts, are really baked 
meats. 

Broiling is a combination of baking and roast- 
ing. The meat is exposed to the direct rays of a 
fire, yet in the broiler attachments to the new 
stoves the heat is confined. In broiling we use 
thinner cuts of meat than for a roast, with as 
much surface exposed as possible. 

Pan-h roiling means that the food is placed on 
a very hot iron surface and turned continually 
until sufficiently cooked. No fat is used and if 
any collects, it is removed. This is the most satis- 
factory way of cooking game or fowl for con- 
valescents. 

Frying is a method of immersing the food in 
deep hot fat. Degrees of heat used for frying are 
not general as vegetable oils may be heated to a 
higher degree than animal oils. 

Sauteing is very much the same as pan-broiling, 
except that in sauteing the fat is allowed to collect 
or is added as the food is cooked. This method 



HOME ECONOMICS 23 

of cooking lias been improperly termed frying. 

Fricasseeing is sauteing and serving with a 
sance or gravy. Very thin steaks or jointed 
chickens are the foods commonly cooked by this 
method. 

Boiling means that foods are cooked to the de- 
sired degree by being placed in boiling water. 

Stewing means cooking to the desired degree in 
water just below the boiling point. This is the 
best method for all protein foods as the albumen 
will coagulate instead of contracting and harden- 
ing, as when strong heat is applied. 

Steaming food means cooking over hot water in 
vessels that confine the steam. This is the best 
method for young, green vegetables, potatoes that 
have a tendency to fall to pieces when partially 
cooked, and some meats. 

Fireless cooker. Vessels for holding foods are 
placed in boxes or cases so packed that when the 
hot food is placed in them and the lid fastened 
down, there will be little change of temperature 
for from eight to twelve hours. Sometimes a hot 
soapstone is placed under the vessel. For cook- 
ing meats, fowls and cereals they have no equal. 
Sherbets and creams, if cooled to the freezing 
point before being placed in the cases, will con- 
tinue to freeze. The theory of this invention is 
insulation to prevent change of temperature. 



24 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Degrees of Heat in Water 

Luke-warm. When a tin vessel holding the 
water can be held with comfort in the hand. 

Scalding. When steam arises. 

Simmering. When tiny bubbles collect around 
the sides and on the bottom of the vessel. 

Boiling. When these bubbles arise to the top, 
burst and send out steam. 

Degrees of Heat in the Oven 

Warm. When th(' hand may be held in with 
comfort. 

Moderate. When a piece of white paper will 
brown in 10 minutes. 

Hot oven. When a piece of white paper will 
brown in 10 seconds. 

Most of the new kitchen ranges have ther- 
mometers in the ovens with the different degrees 
of heat registered. This is the only true way of 
testing heat, but until we are all supplied with 
new stoves, the old methods of testing must be 
used. 

Abbreviations 

Some teachers prefer to use the small "t" for 
teaspoon and the capital "T" for tablespoon. It 
makes very little difference if the same abbrevia- 
tions are used throughout the work, but since the 



HOME ECONOMICS 25 

true abbreviations for the words are "tsp." and 
''tbsp." they will be used in this text: 

tsp teaspoon qt quart 

tbsp tablespoon pt pint 

c cup oz ounce 

ni mmute lb pound 

cm cream Ind Individual 

B. P Baking Powder 

All measures used in cooking are level. Pupils 
must not be allowed to use "rounding" or ''heap- 
ing" measures in any recipe. 

To get one spoonful, take upon the spoon all 
that it will hold, then with the sharp edge of a 
knife level it smooth to the edge of the spoon; 
one-half spoonful, the spoonful is cut in two 
lengthwise; one-fourth spoonful, the half-sj)oon is 
cut in two crosswise; one-eighth, the fourth is cut 
in two crosswise, etc. 

All liquid measures should be leveled oft', the 
same as dry measures. In small amounts and 
with thick materials as molasses the amount that 
would adhere might be enough to cause a failure. 

Weights and IMeasures 

3 tsp 1 tbsp. 2 c. ground meat . . 1 lb. 

16 tbsp 1 cup 15 lbs. potatoes. ... 1 pk. 

2 cups 1 pint 16 ozs 1 lb. 

4 c. flour 1 lb. 2 tbsp. butter 1 oz. 

2 c. butter 1 lb. 4 c. shelled nuts. .1 lb. 

2 c. g. sugar 1 lb. 1 egg, mixed. 3 to 4 tbsp. 



CHAPTER II 

MILK 

Milk contains all of the elements necessary to 
sustain life and to build body tissues of the very 
young or of inactive people, but, when activities 
that require a great deal of energy are begun, milk 
will not suffice, as it is lacking in carbohydrates, 
as will be seen by the following table: 



Water 


Fats 


Sugar 


Casein 


Albumeii 


Minerals 


87% 


4% 


5%, 


2>4% 


/2% 


1% 



This will prove why bread and milk is a health- 
ful food for children. The fats in milk are in the 
form of tiny globules, so small and so evenly dis- 
tributed through the milk, that in fresh milk they 
can not be observed without the aid of a magnify- 
ing glass, but if left undisturbed in a cool place 
the fat particles will rise to the top as cream. 

Test. Put 1 tbsp. of vinegar and 1 tsp. of an 
oil in a bottle and shake well. Notice how the oil 
is broken up into tiny particles. This represents 
the fats in the milk as they would appear, if 
magnified. Hold the bottle still, and notice how 
the globules run together and gather at the top. 
This explains to you how cream rises. 

26 



MILK 27 

The fat of milk is commercially its most im- 
l^ortant element, since from it we get the cream 
and the butter, and it enters largely into cheese 
making. 

The sugar in milk is known as milk-sugar or 
*' lactose," and is not so sweet as cane sugar. It 
is collected from the whey after cheese has been 
made and is used in the manufacture of medicines 
and baby foods. 

The casein, a protein, may be seen by adding 
acid to milk. The tiny flecks you see are the 
casein, which the acid has caused to contract and 
separate from the water. This will be discussed 
in detail under '^Cheese." 

The albumen, another protein, may be seen by 
placing milk over a hot fire. The scum which col- 
lects on the top is the albumen which has been 
hardened by the heat. 

The mineral matter in milk is made up largely 
of phosphates and lime. 

How milk is classified. Whole milk is that 
Avhicli contains all of its elements; skimmed milk, 
that which is left after the cream has been taken; 
buttermilk, the milk left after churning; the 
fats have practically all been removed, and the 
lactic acid which caused the milk to sour has 
separated the casein from the water. Since the 
fat has been removed and the acid has performed 
some of the functions of stomach digestion, butter- 



28 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

milk is sometimes recommended by physicians in 
cases of intestinal troubles. 

Why milk sours. Milk is subject to a great 
many chemical changes as it presents favorable 
conditions for the growth of various bacteria, but 
the one most common is ''souring," due to the 
forming of lactic acid. This acid develops very 
quickly in milk, if the temperature is above 40 
degrees. The widespread belief that thunder or 
lightning sours milk is unfounded. Souring at 
such times is brought about by the atmospheric 
conditions. The same climatic condition that pro- 
duces electricity during a thunder storm will cause 
milk to sour. 

The chief sources of bacteria in milk are, health 
conditions of the cow, the stables, the feed, the 
utensils and the milkers. The general belief now 
is that milk is never entirely free from bacteria ; 
yet the milk from dairies where the vessels are 
thoroughly scalded and cleaned, the milkers work 
with clean hands and clothes and the animals are 
thoroughly cleaned and are healthful, tests prac- 
tically pure. 

On the other hand, pure, clean milk is often sold 
to a person who leaves it uncovered where flies 
or dust can get into it, or turns it into a poorly 
washed vessel, or places it in a warm, moist place 
where odors from other foods can get to it. Tests 
have been made and by great care milk has been 



MILK 29 

kept sweet 21 days by simply using cleanly 
methods. Many preservatives are used to prevent 
milk from souring, but in all cases these are in- 
jurious to the health of the consumer. 

While slight warmth promotes the growth of 
bacteria, extreme heat kills them. Unfor- 
tunately heat sufficient to kill bacteria causes 
chemical changes to take place in the milk. How- 
ever, heat is often used and the two most common 
methods are pasteurization and sterilization. 

Pasteurization requires just enough heat to de- 
stroy as many bacteria as possible without mak- 
ing a chemical change. Milk is placed in jars, 
sealed and immersed to the neck in hot water 
and heated to 150 F., let stand for 30 minutes, 
then removed and cooled quickly. Rapid cooling 
lessens the "cooked" taste. 

Sterilized milk has been heated three succes- 
sive days to boiling point and continued at that 
degree for 15 minutes. Sterilized milk will re- 
main sweet in a warm place several days, but the 
extreme heat has caused an undesirable change. 

Condensed and evaporated milk and milk pow- 
ders are forms of canned milk, which have been 
heated until all of the water has evaporated. 
Effect of strong heat upon milk has been seen in 
the test for albumen. The protein becomes so con- 
tracted and hard that the digestive fluids can not 
liquify it. All foods containing milk should he 



30 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

cooked heloiv the boiling point. Double boilers 
and fireless cookers have done mncli toward tiie 
proper cooking of milk in food combinations. 

WHITE SATJCE 

The thickness of the sauce desired is regulated 
by the number of tablespoonfuls of flour and but- 
ter used to 1 cup of liquid. Since the amounts of 
(flour and butter are the same we indicate the con- 
sistency as: 

''One to one" white sauce means 1 tbsp. each 
flour and butter to 1 c. milk, — used mostly for 
thickening soups. 

"Two to one" white sauce means 2 tbsp. each 
butter and flour to 1 c. milk, — used for creamed 
vegetables, heavy gravies and purees. 

When a very heavy sauce is desired, as for 
croquettes, the amount of fat is decreased as tlie 
amount of flour increases as; 2 tbsp. butter, 5 tbsy). 
flour, 1 c. milk and would be given as "2 to 5 
to 1." 

In making small amounts for class work the 
evaporation will be relatively so much greater 
than for a large amount — that, in a recipe which 
calls for 2 c. white sauce ''2 to 1," one-fourth 
cup would have to be made ^'1 to 1" to give the 
desired consistency. 

Melt the butter slightly, blend it with the flour, 
add the liquid and cook over boiling water about 



I\IILK 31 

8 minutes, until thick and tlie starch in the flour 
has a clear look. Add the salt last. The usual 
amount is i/4 tsp. to the cup, but that depends 
upon its use. Two tbsp. grated cheese added to 
1 c. white sauce is called cheese sauce. Tomato 
juice used in place of milk is called tomato sauce. 
Why starch thickens. If we were to examine 
the fine white powder through a microscope, we 
would see that each grain resembles a white 
marble. This expands and bursts in sufficiently 
moist heat. 

TESTS 

1. To 1 tsp. starch add 1 tbsp. cold water, mix well, 
add Yi e. boiling water and cook three minutes. 

What change has taken place in the color? In the 
consistency? 

2. To 1 tbsp. starch add Yz c. boiling water. Cook 3 
minutes. 

What change in consistency do you find as compared 
with that in the first test? 

3. To 1 tsp. starch add 1 tsp. fat or oil, blend well, 
add Y^ c. boiling water and cook 3 minutes. 

What consistency do you find ? 

MOCK OYSTER SOUP 

1 c. whole milk 2 crackers 

Vl^> t^P- salt 

Spread the crackers with butter and place in a 
soup dish. Heat the milk to scalding point over 
hot Avater, pour it over crackers and serve hot. 



32 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

1. In what one of the food classes is milk deficient? 

2. Why is milk, alone, not a perfect food for a child 
old enough to go to school? 

3. Why is milk a perfect food for a baby :' 

4. Give four reasons for milk souring. 

5. Why should milk or foods containing milk not be 
cooked at a boiling temperature ? 

Note: Unless otherwise stated, the reeipes may lie considered 
to be for individual service. 



CHAPTER III 
EGGS 

Eggs, another form of protein food, are in a 
sense a perfect food since they contain all of the 
elements necessary to life. The entire body of 
the chick is formed inside of the shell, yet when 
it is hatched and begins to move about, the ele- 
ments in different proportions must be taken up 
by its body to keep it alive and growing. 

Eggs, like milk, lack the carbohydrates, and as 
soon as the chick begins to use muscular energy, 
he is fed upon cornmeal or other starchy foods 
to insure his supply of energy-producing material. 
The proportion of elements in the egg is : 

Water Protein Fat Carbohydrates Minerals 

74% 13% 12% .... 1%, 

Perhaps no article of diet of animal origin is 
more commonly eaten in all countries, or served in 
a greater variety of ways than eggs. 

Hens ' eggs are most common, although the eggs 
of all fowls and most birds are used to some ex- 
tent. Turtle eggs are highly prized in some coun- 
tries, and fish eggs, under the name of caviar are 
sold in large quantities. 

33 



34 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

The different parts of an egg are : Shell, lining, 
air space, white, twisted cord, yolk, and embryo. 

The white is nearly pure albumen and water, 
with a percentage of sulphur; the yolk contains 
fat, albumen and a number of minerals in small 
quantities; for example, iron, sulphur, etc.; the 
shell is made up of mineral matter, principally 
lime. The embryo, on the yolk, is the germ from 
which the life of the young chick starts. The cords 
hold the yolk in place. 

How TO Tell Fresh Eggs 

1. If, when held between your eve and a strong liglit, 
the egg is clear with a dark spot in tlie center it is fresh ; 
if it is cloudy, it is stale. This is called "candling." 

2. Drop an egg into fresh water. If it is fresh it will 
sink ; if it comes to the top it is stale or spoiled. 

3. Shake an egg close to .your ear; if it rattles it is 
spoiled. 

4. The shell of a fresh egg is rough ; that of a stah^ 
egg is usually srnootlL 

Why Eggs Spoil. 

1. The shell is porous and when the egg is 
exposed to the air, the water in the egg evaporates 
and air enters and takes its place. Bacteria, enter- 
ing with the air, begin working and soon the egg- 
is stale or spoiled, according to the length of time 
it is exposed. 



EGGS 35 

2. When subjected to heat equal to that of the 
body of the hen, about 78 degrees, the germ of the 
chick will begin to develop and within a few days 
the egg will be unfit for use. 

Many ways of preserving eggs have been tried 
and a few have been successful. If, when eggs are 
plentiful and selling at a low price, they can be 
packed away and kept fresh until they are scarce, 
an important problem in domestic economy has 
been solved. 

Eggs should never be packed in a material that 
has a disagreeable odor. Musty straw or bran 
will injure the flavor, and crates of eggs have been 
ruined by leaving them near cabbage or onions. 

Preserving Eggs 

The results of preserving eggs by different 
methods through a period of eight months showed 
the following results: 

Brine — salt absorbed by egg, not edible. 
Wrapped in paper — 80% bad. 
Rubbed with salt— 707^ bad. 
Packed in bran — 709? bad. 
Covered with paraffin — 70% bad. 
Partially sterilized by placing in boiling water 
for 12 to 15 seconds — 50% bad. 

Varnished with vaseline — all good. 

In lime water — all good. 

In solution of water glass — all good. 



36 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Cooking. Coagulation is the solidifying of tlie 
albumen by means of heat. If coagulated rapidly 
the albumen becomes hard and contracts and is 
hard to dissolve. If coagulated slowly it is easily 
dissolved. In the cooking of eggs it is necessary 
to keep this in mind, and cook them very slowly 
or at a temperature below the boiling point. As 
one of the functions of stomach digestion is to 
liquify its contents, the easier a substance is liqui- 
fied the quicker it is digested and the less strain 
on the digestive organs. 

SOFT-COOKED OR "BOTTiEO" EGGS 

Drop an egg into a pan of water that is just 
below the boiling point and let stand from 3 to 5 
minutes. When broken, the white will be jelly- 
like and the yolk heated through. 

POACTTF.D EGGS 

Break an egg into a pan of simmering salt 
water, deep enough to cover the egg. When the 
white is firm, remove and place on buttered toast. 
Scalding hot milk may be used in place of water. 

HARD-COOKED OR " BOTTLED " EGGS 

Drop an egg into a pan of water just below the 
boiling point, turn the fire very low and cook at 
the same temperature 40 minutes. Remove the 



EGGS 37 

eggs and yjlace in cold water for a few seconds, 
then take tliem out of the cold water, put aw^ay 
and cool before taking off the shell. This insures 
a dry mealy yolk and a firm but not tough white. 

GOLDEN-KOD EGGS 

1 hard-cooked egg 1/3 c. white sauce "2 to 1 " 

Dice egg white and add to white sauce. Turn 
into a toasted bun cup. Press yolk through a 
ricer and pile on the top. A slice of toast may 
be used in place of the bun cup. 

TOASTED BT'N-CT'PS 

Cut off the bottom crust of small buns and 
partially hollow out. Butter the inside and toast 
in a hot oven. They are very nice to use in serv- 
ing creamed meats. 

EGG SANDWICHES 

( S samlwiclies) 

2 hard-cooked eggs ^s tsp. salt 

^2 tsp. celery salt ^ tsp. paprika 

1 tbsp. melted butter 2 tbsp. mayonnaise 

Rice the yolks, add cliopped whites and blend 
with it the other ingredients. Cut bread very 
thin, brush each side with melted butter, spread 
on a layer of the egg mixture, press down the 
other slice and cut in triangular slices. 

Approximate cost, 8 cents. 



38 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

FOAMY OMELET 

Beat the white of one egg stiff and dry. Add 1 
tsp. water to the yolk and beat until lemon colored. 
Fold into the white, add % tsp. salt and turn into 
a well greased and hot omelet pan. When brown 
on the under side, place in a hot oven to cook the 
top. Wlien firm, remove from the oven, slip a 
spatula under the side nearest the handle and 
fold. Garnish with parsley. 

BREAD OMELET 

Soak 1 tbsp. small pieces of bread in 2 tbsp. 
milk. Add egg yolk and white, beaten stiff' and dry. 
Cook as foamy omelet. 

SCRAMBLED EGGS 

1 egg }4 tbsp. milk 

y2 tsp. butter 1/16 tsp. salt. 

Melt butter in pan that is heated over hot water. 
Mix egg thoroughly with milk and turn into the 
melted butter. Stir continually until the egg is 
cooked to the desired consistency. (If cooked at 
a low temperature hard-cooked eggs are digest- 
ible.) Add salt last and serve on toast or on a 
warm plate. . 



CHAPTER IV 

VEGETABLES 

Fresh vegetables are composed mainly of water, 
but all of the five food principles may be obtained 
from the vegetable kingdom. Dry vegetables, as 
peas and beans, contain a higher percentage of 
starch and protein than the fresh vegetables. 
All vegetables have in their construction a woody 
fiber called cellulose. In cooking vegetables the 
main object to attain is the softening of this 
cellulose so that it may be more easily digested. 
Plants that grow rapidly, with plenty of moisture 
and sunshine, have little of this when very young, 
but more when old. Radishes and asparagus are 
good examples. 

Vegetable protein occurs as legumen and gluten 
substances. 

Vegetables are rich in minerals, especially iron, 
potash and phosphate. 

Vegetable protein lies near the outer surface of 
the different grains and vegetables. 

All green vegetables contain a coloring matter, 
chlorophyll, which develops in light and air. 
Chlorophyll develops best in the presence of iron, 

39 



40 FOOL) AND CLOTHING 

and is essential to the continued growth and de- 
velopment of all green plants. If green plants are 
covered so that light cannot reach them a change 
takes place in the chlorophyll and it is bleached 
out. Celery, lettuce, endive, and other salad plants 
are bleached and it is believed that in the bleach- 
ing, strong flavors are diminished. 

Vegetable foods are divided into: 

Cereals, which include all grains, as corn, wheat, etc. 

Legumes, as peas, beans, lentils. 

Tubers, as potatoes. 

Roots, as turnips, beets, radishes. 

Bulbs, as onions, garlic. 

Greens, as lettuce, celery, si)inacli. 

Fruit, as tomatoes. i)umpkin, cucuihIxm-. melons. 

Flower, as caulitlower. 

Digestibility of vegetables. Aside from the 
amount of tissue-building material they contain, 
vegetables aid in the process of digestion by fur- 
nishing bulk, or substances which help carry the 
foods along the digestive tract. Many times we 
should eat vegetables wdiose building properties 
are very low, simply for the bulk they furnish. 
Cabbage has very little material for the body, yet 
it is recommended by dietitians as a proper food, 
occasionally, for well people. By cooking, the 
cellulose is softened and it is not irritating to the 
digestive organs. 



VEGETABLES 41 

Cooking of Vegetables 

The preparation of vegetables for cooking var- 
ies with each kind, so that no general rules can be 
given except these: 

1. Vegetables u'ilf because some of the water in 
their cells has evaporated ; therefore all wilted 
vegetables should be soaked in cold water before 
being cooked. 

2. Vegetables have decayed places on them be- 
cause bacteria have begun their work ; all decayed 
places must be removed. 

3. In preparation for cooking, vegetables that 
form heads, as cabbage, cauliflower, etc., should 
be soaked, heads down, in cold salt water to which 
has been added a small amount of vinegar. If 
there are any worms in these vegetables they will 
crawl out. 

To secure the best results in cooking vegetables, 
all except the dry legumens, should be put in boil- 
ing salt water, and allowed to boil until tender. 
Green peas and beans should simmer; greens 
should boil gently, or be steamed so as not to break 
them. A little soda added to the water helps dis- 
solve the cellulose, but too much destroys the 
flavor and its use is not recommended. Briefly, the 
changes which take place in the cooking of vege- 
tables are: 

Cellulose tissues are softened and loosened. 



42 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Protein substances coagulate. 
Starch grains swell and burst. 
Flavors and odors are developed. 

The Potato 

In a text on agriculture read the chapter on the 
potato : of the soil, time of planting, care, market, 
etc. From a geography make a list of states or 
sections of the country where potatoes grow best. 

Examine a cross-section of a potato and notice 
the three distinct layers: 

1. The brown outer skin, of no food value. 

2. A broader white layer mside the skin. This 
contains the largest amount of the mineral and 
protein. 

3. The flesh of the potato and a center core 
with decided arms extending into the flesh. These 
are the cells holding the water in which the tiny 
starch grains float. 

Scrape a tablespoonful of the potato flesh and 
place it in a thin cloth. Squeeze it until you can 
get no more moisture from it. In the cloth you 
will have a dry fiber, or broken-down cell walls 
which hold the starch and water. After the water 
has stood a few minutes you will find a white 
sediment. This is starch. By this time the water 
and cellulose has turned a reddish brown. This 
change of color in many fruits as well as in pota- 



VEGETABLES 43 

toes is clue to the action of tlie oxygen in the air 
upon the wet minerals. 

The potato is composed of: 

Water Starch Cellulose Minerals Protein 

75 7o 18%' 4% 1% 2% 

1. The potato belongs to what class of foods'? 

2. Why do we get more food value from the j^otato 
that is cooked with the jacket on than from one that has 
been peeled? 

3 In what food principle are potatoes lacking'^ 

Effect of Heat 

Heat causes the water in the cells to expand and 
change to steam. As it expands it presses hard 
against the cell walls and they are broken down 
and the starch grains are freed. They also expand 
and change in color. 

This is the reason why a potato which has been 
cooked in the jacket should be pierced to allow 
the steam to escape, otherwise the steam will 
change back to water and the potato will be soggy. 
For the same reason potatoes should always be 
served in an uncovered dish. 

A theory of long standing, that potatoes should 
be plunged into boiling water, is perhaps not a 
bad one to follow, but tests prove that peeled 
potatoes lose very little of their value if placed 
in cold water, while potatoes cooked in their 
jackets lose none at all in that way. 



44 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

BOILED POTATOES 

1 potato y^ tsp. salt 

Boiling water to cover. 

Wash, pare very thinly, remove eyes, and rinse 
in cold water; place in the boiling salt water and 
cook very slowly until it can be easily pierced 
with a tooth pick. Let the water boil very gently, 
as vigorous boiling wears away so much of the 
potato. Drain off the water and shake over the 
fire until dry and ''snowy. " Chopped parsley 
sprinkled over just before serving adds to the 
appearance and food value. 

We add salt to the water, not to flavor the po- 
tato, but to increase the density; that is, raise the 
temperature at the boiling point, as the thicker 
the liquid, the higher the temperature is at boiling 
point. 

At certain seasons of the year potatoes, if 
cooked by this method, will break to pieces before 
they are done. At such seasons the only satis- 
factory way is to steam them. The price of a 
steamer will be saved many times by the saving 
of the potatoes. 

BOILED POTATOES IN .JACKETS 

Wash, clean, and cook as above. These may be 
skinned and sent to the table hot or allowed to 
cool, then skinned and cooked as German saute 
or hash brown potatoes. 



VEGETABLP]S 45 

Test a small amount of the potato water from 
each recipe with iodine and observe the differ- 
ence in the amount of starch, (Iodine is a liquid 
which turns all starchy substances blue.) 

Place a drop of iodine on a cracker, on some 
sugar, on some butter, bread, flour, meat. Note 
the difference. Which contain starch? 

BAKED POTATOES 

Use medium sized potatoes. Scrub thoroughly 
with a brush. Oil lightly, place on the grill of a 
hot oven, and bake until they can be easily pierced, 
from 20 to 40 minutes. Eoll in a clean napkin 
and twist until the skin is broken, or pierce sev- 
eral times. Serve in an uncovcixd dish. 

1. Why oil the skin? 

2. Why twist and break the skin ? 

3. Why serve potatoes in an uncovered dish? 

BAKED POTATOES ON THE HAl.F-SHELL 

Cut otf the end of a baked potato, scoop out, 
and season. To every cup of the potato, add i/4 
tsp. salt, dash pepper, V2 tsp. butter and 1 thsj). 
cream (sweet or sour) or milk. Beat until light 
and creanw. Refill the shell loosely and heap 
above the shell. Return to the oven to brown. 

Grated cheese may be sprinkled over the top 
before returning to the oven to brown. 

If the potatoes are allowed to cool before sea- 



46 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

soiling and refilling the shell, the beaten white 
of an egg folded into them adds much to the 
lightness of the filling. 

1. Why add butter and milk to the potato? 

2. What combination of food does it give you? 

3. Why does the grated cheese sprinkled on the top 
add to the food value ? 

GERMAN SAUTE 

(.Serve 6) 

3 e. cold boiled finely chopped potatoes, cooked in jackets. 

3 slices bacDU, sauted crisp and cut fine. 
Yz c. finely chopped onion. 1 tsp. salt — dash pepper. 

Mix thoroughly and turn into skillet where 
the bacon was rendered. Cover and cook very 
slowly, stirring as they broAvn on underside, so 
as to brown evenly, through and through. Serve 
hot. 

Just before serving, ^ c. cream may be turned 
over the potatoes, the lid replaced and the whole 
allowed to steam for a few seconds. This softens 
the brown crusts and adds to the flavor. 

BOILED CABBAGE 

After cleaning as directed in ^'Prej^aration and 
Cooking of Vegetables," cut fine and put in a 
stew pan wdth enough boiling water to cover. 
Cook from 25 to 45 minutes, depending upon the 
age of the cabbage. Drain for 2 minutes in a 
colander, season with salt, pepper and butter. 



VEGETABLES 47 

If cabbage is cooked in a great amount of 
water with tlie lid off the odor will not be notice- 
able. To 1 c. shredded cabbage, use 5 c. of water, 
and as the water evaporates add more. 

BOILED CABBAGE WITH PORK 

■ Boil the pork until tender, adding the cabbage 
as directed above, and serve all together. 

CREAMED CABBAGE 

Boil cabbage as directed. Make cream sauce 
or cheese sauce ''2 to 1." Put cabbage in baking 
dish, turn sauce over it, sprinkle with buttered 
crumbs, and brown. (See "white sauce.") 

CREAMED CAULIFLOWER 

Use only the flowers. Soak in cold, salt, vinegar 
water for an hour, cook as ''Boiled Cabbage" and 
turn over all a cheese sauce. 

SPINACH 

Pull the leaves from the roots, drop in a pan of 
water, wash well in two waters, shaking each leaf 
separately. Throw into a kettle, with only the 
water that is on the leaves, and cook with the lid 
on for 20 minutes from time it begins to steam. 
Pour spinach in colander and drain thoroughly. 
Place in a dish, add salt, pepper, butter and hard- 



48 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

cooked egg cut in slices. One peck of spinach 
will make IV2 pts. when cooked. 

Mustard greens should cook from one to three 
hours very slowly. The cellulose in these greens 
is very hard to soften. 

BOILED BEETS 

Wash the beets well, being careful not to break 
the skin; also leave about 2 inches of the top on. 
This will keep in the red coloring matter. Drop 
in boiling water. Young beets will cook in one 
hour, but old beets sometimes require as long as 
4 hours. Put in cold water, slip off the peeling 
and prepare as: 

1. Buttered beets, by dieing and adding salt, pepper 
and plenty of butter, then reheating. 

2. Pickled beets, by -slicing and covering with half 
vinegar, half vvater, and allowing to stand 24 hours. 

ASPARAGrs 

Cut off the lower, woody part of each stem. 
Wash well, tie in a bunch, and stand in a pan 
with the tender ends up. Fill the pan with enough 
boiling water to cover and cook until tender, about 
]5 minutes. Drain, season with salt, pepper and 
butter or make a ''3 to 1" white sauce and pour 
over. This is often served on toasted points. 
After the cooked asparagus has drained and 
cooled, several sticks may be arranged on a let- 



VEGETABLES 49 

tuce leaf, with French dressing or mayonnaise 
over it and served as a salad. 

CANDIED SWEET POTATOES 

Skin boiled sweet potatoes and cut in length- 
wise slices. Place in an earthen dish, put lumps 
of butter on each slice and sprinkle with sugar. 
Bake until the butter and sugar has candied and 
the potatoes are brown. 

SWEET POTATO PUFFS 

Cut baked potatoes in halves, scrape out the 
inside, season with salt, pepper, butter and 
chopped nuts, refill shells, leaving a rough surface, 
and bi'own in a liot oven before serving. 

TOMATOES 

To peel : Put ripe tomatoes in a dish, pour boil- 
ing water over them and let stand one minute; 
pour the water oif, and pour on cold water; turn 
this off immediately and cool. The thin skin will 
slip off readily, and the tomato will retain its 
shape. 

SCAIJ.OPED TOMATOES 

(Servo 6) 

2 0. peeled tomatoes 1 tsp. salt 

2 ('. bread chunks 1 tbsp. butter 

Reserve Y^. c. crumbs for the top 



50 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Add the salt and bread chunks to tomatoes. 
Put in baking dish, dice butter over top, add 
crumbs and brown in an oven. One tbsp. or more 
of diced onions may be added if desired. 

CREAMED ONIONS 

Select small onions of uniform size. Remove 
roots and outside skin. Cook until tender in 
enough boiling water to cover, with the lid off. 
Drain and pour over, for each onion, 2 tbsp. white 
sauce *'2 to 1" and serve. 

GREEN CORN 

The most satisfactory way to serve green corn 
is on the cob. Remove the husks and silks and 
any brown places on the cob or corn. Drop the 
ears in a kettle of boiling water, and boil rapidly 
for 20 minutes. Drain before serving. 

TURNIPS 

Wash, peel and if very large, quarter. Cook 
until tender in a large amount of water, just at 
the boiling point. Drain, and season with salt, 
pepper and butter. 

Creamed turnips: mash the boiled turnips thor- 
oughly, add salt, pepper, butter and cream. 

CREAMED CARROTS 

Wash and scrape the carrots thoroughly. Dice 



VEGETABLES 51 

and cook until tender in boiling water. Drain and 
serve with a white sauce "2 to 1." 

Many people are not fond of carrots, but they 
contain a high percentage of mineral, and their 
cellulose is so easily softened that they are a very 
desirable food. 

CREAMED STRING-BEANS 

%. c. golden snap beans ]4, <"■ white sauce "2 to 1" 

1 sHce toasted bread 

If canned beans are used, add to the white sauce, 
and cook over water 10 minutes. Turn onto toast 
and serve hot. 

If fresh beans are used, they should be cooked 
in boiling water until tender, then measured. 

CREAMED PEAS 

1 tbsp. peas 2 tbsp. white sauce "2 to 1 " 

1 slice toast or 1 patty shell 

Cook as for creamed beans. 

Peas and beans belong to a family of vegetables 
known as the pulse family. Dried, they are very 
rich in nitrogen and their principle protein is 
known as "legumen." They are, therefore, often 
called legumens. On account of their large 
amount of protein they are sometimes styled 
'^Poor Man's Beef." They are also very rich in 
carbohydrates, but are poor in fats, and for that 



52 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

reason are usually served with fatty foods. 
Served with a cream sauce they make a well-bal- 
anced food. 

Fresh peas and beans should be cooked immedi- 
ately after pickini^ as they loose both in flavor 
and value by evaporation. When 'Afresh w^ith 
the dew from the garden" they are at their best. 

1. What names are given to vegetable protein? 

2. Name some minerals that are fonnd in vegetables. 

3. Give three reasons for a strong vegetable diet. 

4. What do we mean by ' ' coarse vegetables ' ' ? 

5. Why do we need "coarse vegetables"? 



CHAPTER V 

SUGAR 

Sugar, one of tlie carbohydrates, lias its source 
in fruits, cereals and vegetables, as well as in milk. 
There are several kinds of sugar : 

Sucrose, cane or beet sugar, very sweet. 

Lactose, milk sugar. 

Glucose, made from corn starch. It is not as 
sweet as cane sugar and does not crystallize read- 
ily, hence its value in making some candies. 

Dextrine, a sugar which is produced in the 
process of digestion, also, by applying heat to 
starch, as in toasted bread. 

Commercial sugar is made from the juice of 
sugar cane, beet roots, and maple trees. 

Sugar cane is a tall plant of the grass family 
resembling corn, cultivated extensively in the 
South for use in making syrup and sugar. 

Sugar heel is a large white variety of beet, 
from the juice of whicli sugar is made. It is cul- 
tivated extensively in Colorado, New Mexico, 
Michigan and California. 

Maple sugar is made from the juice of a maple 
tree which grows in northeastern United States. 

There are two kinds of granulated sugar, — beet 

53 



54 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

and cane. Often beet sugar has a blue tinge and 
cane sugar a yellow tinge, though when both are 
highly refined there is no distinction between 
them. 

In cane sugar the sweet juice which is obtained 
by crushing the cane between large rollers is 
boiled down to a thick syrup. As it slowly cools 
part of it separates into crystals. The liquid that 
will not crystallize is called molasses. After drain- 
ing this off the impure product called raw sugar 
(brown sugar) is left. This is mixed with water 
and filtered several times and then boiled down in 
covered vessels which contain no air. Granulated 
sugar is made by putting the syrup into revolving 
vessels, the centrifugal force forming the gran- 
ules. Other kinds of granulated sugar are block 
sugar and powdered sugar. 

Block or cut sugar is the purest kind and is 
made by running the syrup into molds wdiere it 
hardens. AVhen taken from the molds it is sawed 
into blocks. An inferior kind of square loaf sugar 
is made by pressing granulated sugar into cubes. 

Powdered sugar is made by pulverizing the 
sugar particles left from sawing the block sugar. 

Brown sugar is the unrefined cane sugar. 

Molasses is the thick brown syrup which drains 
from the sugar in the process of manufacture. 

Sugar is often adulterated by adding to it white 
sand, lime dust, or starch. As pure sugar dis- 



SUGAR 55 

solves quickly in warm water, the presence of 
foreign matter may be readily detected. 

The digestion of sugar requires less energy on 
the part of the digestive organs than any other 
food, on account of its solubility, but since 
the body can care for only so small an amount at 
a time, people commonly eat too much and a great 
amount ferments and causes digestive disturb- 
ances. 

Effect of heat upon sugar. Heat changes sugar 
chemically almost as soon as it is applied. When 
sugar is melted over a slow fire, it has been 
changed to barley sugar; when barley sugar has 
begun to brown we have caramel sugar; burned 
until it is black we have carbon. In each sugar, 
some of the sweetness has been lost, until, if you 
were to taste the carbon, you should find it bitter. 
This proves to us that when cooking fruits or 
vegetables, where sugar is to be used, it must be 
added just in time to melt it as the longer it cooks 
the greater the loss of the sweet taste. 

Sugar as a food is both wholesome and pleasant. 
It is also one of the best and cheapest sources of 
body heat and energy. Children, who are natur- 
ally more active than grown people, require more 
sweets. A moderate amount of candy is good for 
children, but it should be eaten immediately after 
meals, otherwise it spoils the appetite for other 
foods. 



56 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Since sugar, in any form, is a food, and candy 
is the most attractive form of sugar, and people, 
especially children, will have candy, it is wisdom 
for every girl to learn to make pure simple can- 
dies, and make them often in the home. The 
''penny-candy" habit has brought more harm to 
children than any other source of temptation set 
before them. Cheap candies are often full of 
poisonous colorings and flavorings and contain 
adulterations that stunt the growth and ruin the 
health of thousands of their users. 

Candy ]\Iaking 

The different stages oi sugar cookery m candy 
making are, soft ball, hard ball, crack, and hard 
crack. 

The sugar and Avater boiled together reaches the 
''soft ball" stage when a portion dropped into 
cold water can be gathered up into a soft ball. 

The "hard ball" stage is reached when the por- 
tion tested forms a firm, compact ball. 

At the "crack" degree, the portion tested be- 
comes slightly brittle and can no longer be molded 
into a ball. 

The ' ' hard crack ' ' is the stage at which the por- 
tion tested becomes hard and brittle. 

After the hard stage is passed, the syrup gradu- 
ally changes color, becoming first light yellow, 



SUGAR 57 

then brown and finally a deep red. These repre- 
sent the different stages of carmelization. 

At the last stage the sugar has lost its sweet 
taste and is used for coloring soups and gravies. 

At the intermediate stage it is used for flavor- 
ing ice creams and custards. 

These different stages may be easily determined 
by the use of a thermometer, which is the most 
accurate way of testing. 

In most candies the object is to prevent the 
recrystallization of the sugar, or to insure its 
formation in minute crystals, that the candy may 
be creamy. This may be brought about by invert- 
ing a portion of the sugar: first, by long boiling, 
with the addition of at least half as mucli liquid 
as sugar, or by the addition of an acid as vinegar, 
lemon juice, or cream of tartar (an acid salt); 
second, by melting the sugar at a high tempera- 
ture with no addition of liquid. 

PEANUT BRITTLE 

1 c. sugar 1 c. shelled peanuts 

Put the peanuts on a buttered tin plate. Heat 
the sugar slowly until it is a brown color (cara- 
mel). Pour over the peanuts. Even the thickness 
in the pan by tilting. 

Weigh the candy, note the cost and compare 
with the selling price. Do not attempt to make 
more than one pound of this at a time, as in melt- 



58 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

ing large amounts of sugar some will burn before 
the rest can melt. 

NUT TAFFY 

2 c. sugar 1 tsp. viuegar 

1 c. water 1 tsp. butter 

Yi c. chopped nuts 

Cook sugar and water together until sugar is 
dissolved. Add the butter and vinegar and cook 
to the hard ball stage. Pour into buttered pans 
on which the nuts have been spread. When cool 
enough to handle, pull until white and hard. 
Twist into ropes ^2 inch in diameter and when 
cold break into small pieces. 

COCOANUT CREAM CANDY 

V/z c. sugar 1 tbsp. butter 

Ya, e. milk Y^ c. coeoanut 

Y2 tsp. vanilla 

Stir sugar in milk, add butter and heat gradu- 
ally until the butter is melted. Cook to soft ball 
stage. Remove from fire, beat in coeoanut and 
vanilla, and beat until mixture is creamy and be- 
gins to sugar around the edge. Turn at once into 
a buttered plate and score. 

CHOCOLATE NUT FUDGE 

2 c. sweet milk 2 tbsp. butter 

1 tsp. vanilla 2 c. sugar 

V2 e. chopped nuts 2 sections chocolate, 

of the Y2. lb. cakes 



SUGAR 59 

Melt chocolate over hot water, acid milk and 
let it come to the boiling point. Cream butter and 
sugar, add to hot milk and chocolate. Cook until 
soft ball stage is reached. Remove from fire and 
beat in the nuts. Add vanilla and beat until 
creamy. Pour into pans and score. 

A slight acid in the chocolate will sometimes 
curdle the milk, but this does not interfere witli 
the creaminess of the fudge. 

1. Why add the vanilla last? 

2. Why beat the fudge? 

3. Has fudge a food value? 

FONDANT 

3/2 c. sugar ^ c. water 

ys tsp. cream of tartar 

Add sugar to water and stir until the sugar has 
dissolved. Place over a slow fire and, when it 
begins to boil, shake in the cream of tartar. With 
a wet cloth wrapped around the tines of a fork, 
keep the sides of pan washed clean from sugar 
grains that accumulate as the syrup boils. When 
a drop of the syrup, in cold w^ater, may be gath- 
ered up and brought to the top, it has cooked suffi- 
ciently. Pour into a vessel, and when cold, beat 
until creamy. Then knead like bread for a few 
minutes, put in a jar, cover and let stand until 
ready for use. It is better if allowed to stand a 
few days before using. 

Do not stir fondant after it begins to cook. Do 



60 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

not scrape it from the pan; use only what will 
pour. When testing fondant or any candy always 
remove from the fire and wait until boiling ceases. 
Sometimes the few seconds between the test and 
the time for removing from the fire, it will have 
cooked too much if it was just right at the time 
the test was taken. 

If fondant has been cooked too long and it turns 
to a hard sugar, equal parts of water may be 
added and it may be cooked again with good 
results. 

When cooking larger amounts of sugar for 
candy, as 2 cups, one-half the amount of water 
may be used, but in small amounts, as y^ c. of 
sugar, equal parts of water must be used, as the 
evaporation is relatively greater. 

CANDIED ORANGE PEEL 

Cut the rind of six oranges into fine strips. 
Throw into 2 qts. of boiling salt water and cook 
imtil tender, changing the water three times. 
Drain and dry. Make syrup of 2 c. sugar, 1/2 c. 
water, and when it has reached the crack stage 
put in the peel and cook again for 2 or 3 min- 
utes. Turn on paper, sprinkle with enough sugar 
to keep the strips from sticking together. 

MARSHMALLOWS 

1 e. sugar 1 egg white 

y2 c. water 1 tsp. gelatine 



SUGAR 61 

Soak gelatine in 2 tsp. cold water. Cook sugar 
and water until it spins a long thread. Add gel- 
atine to hot syrup and, when well dissolved, pour 
slowly over the stiffly beaten egg white, stirring 
continually. Beat until stiff. Pour in a shallow 
pan, cover with powdered sugar, and let stand 
until firm and cut into small cubes. 



CHAPTER VI 

MEATS 

The food value of meat depends upon the pres- 
ence of two classes of nutriment; namely, protein 
and fat, which build muscular tissue and yield 
heat and energy. 

Compared, with other protein foods, meat is 
very expensive, and in many cases it is slow to 
digest. Bacteria develops so rapidly in meat that, 
unless the digestive organs are rapid or entirely 
normal in their work, substances will be absorbed 
and thrown into the circulation which will cause 
general disorder. 

The classifications are: 

31 eat: Beef, pork, lamb, mutton, veal. 
Fish: Red fish, white fish, oysters, elams, shrimps, etc. 
Poultry: Chicken, capon, turkey, duck, goose. 
Game: Rabbit, pigeon, squab, quail, squirrel, wikl 
duck, wild turkey. 

Beef 

The fat consists of tiny sacks or cells filled with 
oil. In the young, well-fed beef it is firm and of a 
light yellow color ; in old beef it is soft, flabby and 
of a dark yellow or straw color. 

62 



MEATS 63 

The muscular tissue, or lean meat, consists of 
bundles of muscular fibers or tubes held together 
by means of a connective tissue, which in the 
young beef is soft and jelly-like, while in the old 
beef it is firm and elastic. The bundles may be 
seen very plainly by examining a piece of round 
steak or the cross cut of a section of a rump roast. 
In each of the different muscles, these Inmdles are 
placed one way ; and for this reason a person who 
carves should cut across the grain of bundles of 
each muscle even though he has to change the 
direction of his knife several times. These 
bundles of muscles tied together with this connec- 
tive tissue may be compared to a bundle of wheat 
wrapped from the top to the bottom with the 
twine. It is easy, from this comparison, to see 
how carving a cross-section would give an alto- 
gether different result tlian cutting lengthwise of 
the fiber. 

A fresh cut of beef should be bright red in color, 
but as it is exposed to the air it turns a dark color. 
One of the best tests for fresh meat is the odor. 
Do not accept a cut of meat that has the least 
trace of an offensive odor. 

Meats are cooked for four reasons: 

To loosen and soften the connective tissues. 

To kill parasites and organisms. 

To coagulate the protein substances. 

To render it more acceptable to the sight and to 
develop the flavor. 



64 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

In tougli cuts, and by those we mean the muscu- 
lar parts most used by the animal, the percentage 
of nutrition is greater but it also requires greater 
etfort on the part of the digestive organs to pre- 
pare it for use, unless the method of cooking lends 
aid. 

Strong heat hardens and contracts proteins, 
while slow heat coagulates them. From this w^e 
have two rules for cooking the tough cuts of 
meat : 

First, if the flavor and nutrition is desired in 
the meat, strong heat must first be applied to 
harden the protein substances on the outside so 
as to keep the juices in, then it should be reduced 
to a temperature below the boiling point for the 
remainder of the cooking. 

Second, if the flavor and nutrition is to be 
taken from the meat, as for soups and sauces or 
gravy, it should be placed in cold water and the 
temperature increased very slowly until it is sim- 
mering. 

The fireless cooker method is the most success- 
ful way of cooking tough cuts of meat. 

"Ways of Cooking Beef 

Soups: Hind shank, fore shank, neck. 
Stews: Chuck, shoulder, brisket, flank, ribs. 
Boasts: Prime ribs, third, fourth, fifth, etc. 
Pot roasts: Rump, top shoulder. 
Steals: Loin, top round, chuck, flank. 



MEATS 65 

1. Give two reasons why meat is an expensive protein 
food. 

2. Make a comparison between the fatty tissues and 
the lean tissues of meat. 

3. What proof have we that tough meats should be 
cooked at a low temperature? 

4. Why are some pieces of meat termed ' ' tough ' ' and 
some "tender"? 

5. Why will carving a piece of meat cross-grain make 
it seem tender ? 

6. Why is the tireless cooker a successful method of 
cooking tough cuts of meat? 

ROLLED FLANK STEAK 
(Mock Duck) 

Wipe a flank steak and chop it each way. Salt, 
pepper and spread with rendered suet. Spread 
over this a layer of dressing about 1 inch thick. 
Roll, skeAver and tie. Weigh and place in a hot 
baking pan, which has a small amount of fat in 
it, and bake in a moderate oven, 20 minutes per 
pound. Several times during cooking baste with 
extra fat. Remove all fastenings, slice through 
meat and dressing and serve with brown gravy. 

DRESSING 

1 e. bread chunks 2 tbsp. chopped onion 

54 tsp. sage Yi tsp. salt 

Moisten all with waten or tomato juice. Handle 
very lightly as the crumbs are likely to become 
packed and the dressing will be heavy. 



66 



FOOD AND CLOTHING 

BROWN GRAVY 



To every tbsp. of fat in the baking dish 
add 1 tbsp. of flour. Blend well and brown 
slightly, scraping loose all browned particles 
in the pan. Add water slowly until it is as thick as 
'*3 to 1" white sauce. Add salt and pepper if 
necessary. 









1 


\ 




\\ 


/ 


z 


1 


' 


iO 


12 


1. Keck. V^ 




— — 1 




\ 


-^ 


^ 


8. Chuck. V 




i 


3. Ribs. \ 

4. Shoulder cled, ' 


^I 


4. 


7 


^ S y. 


// / 


13 1 


6. Fore shank. 


v>N 


L_ 


^__^„...'^ 


^ 


>w 


6. Brisket. 


w 




^ 


^ 


^/v 


-wi 


7. Cross ribs. 


^ 


st 


r^ 




-^^ > 




8. Plate. 


\ 








wol 


9. Navel. 


\ 


s A 








10. Loin. 






\ , 






/ 1 


n. Flank. 


..*! 

m 


' ^ */ 


uk 






^Mf/.^ 


12. Rump. 

13. Round. 


M. 


m 


'\i'-'i(.L 


Mi^i 


14. Second cut round. 












15. Hind shank. 
















Diagram of Cuts of Beef 

1 . Locate en diagram a tiaiik steak. 

2. AVhy do the fibers of muscles all run one way? 

3. Why should we add fat to the flank steak! 

4. Name other foods tliat may be served with it. 



MEATS 67 

IIAMBCIRG STEAK 
(Servo 6) 

1 c. ground steak (imeooked) dash pepper 
y2 tsp. salt 1 egg 

1 tsp. chopped onion, or 6 drops onion juice if preferred 

Mix thoroughly. Mold into small flat cakes and 
saute in hot drippings until thoroughly browned 
and cooked. 

The round is cut from the leg of the hind 
quarter and is easily recognized by the round 
bone, near the center of the entire cut. It is one 
of the most nutritious cuts of the beef and is used 
for beef teas and juices. 

1. Why do we mix the egg with the ground beef? 

2. When eggs are expensive, what may be substi- 
tuted ? 

FRICASSEED STEAK 
(Serve 4) 

Use % lb. cut of round steak I/2 in- tbick. Salt, 
pepper and dredge with flour. Saute in a saute 
pan with enough fat to brown the meat well on 
both sides. When well browned turn in enough 
water to cover. Befill as often as necessary and 
let simmer one hour, or until tender. A bay leaf 
added to the water will improve the flavor. 

1. Why cook so long? 

2. Why use round steak? 

3. What is the price per pound? 



68 



FOOD AND CLOTHING 




Chuck Steak 
(from Shoulder) 



Rib Roast 




Tip of Sirloin 



Porterliimse Steak 
a. Sirloin b. Tenderloin 




Round Steak 



Flat-bone Sirloin 



PLATE I 



MEATS By 

CREAMED DRIED HEEP 
(Serve 8) 

Yi lb. chipped beef (sliredded) 4 tbsp. flour 

2 c. milk 4 tbsp. butter 

If beef is very salt, soak in boiling water for 5 
minutes. When butter is hot in saute pan turn 
in the beef and cook until brown. Sift the flour 
over gradually, stirring continually. When well 
blended add the milk and cook for 3 minutes. 

Instead of adding the milk, ^4 c. grated cheese 
and three eggs may be added and all stirred until 
the cheese is melted and the eggs well scrambled- 
This last makes a very palatable luncheon disli. 

BOILED BRISKET 

(Servi' 4) 

Cut 1 lb. of brisket into small pieces after wip- 
ing thoroughly with a damp cloth. Drop into boil- 
ing water, then reduce the temperature to sim- 
mering and cook until tender, about 2 hours. Add 
salt, from 1 to 2 tsp., depending upon the brand 
of salt. 

Brisket is the cut along the end of the ribs. The 
cartilage on the ends of the bones, is an indication 
of a good cut. The li(iuor from this meat is ex- 
cellent for cooking dumplings or potatoes. 

BEEF STEW 

(Serve 8) 

Use 2 lbs. of neck meat, brisket, or shoulder. 



70 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Cut in small pieces and place in cold water and 
bring to tlie simmering point. At the end of one 
hour add 2 tsp. salt, 1 onion cut into small pieces, 
4 turnips quartered, 4 carrots halved, and 20 
minutes before the dish is to be served, add 4 
potatoes halved, which have first been cooked in 
boiling salt water 10 minutes. If dumplings are 
to be served with this, follow recipe in chapter on 
''Flour." Turnips should be pared, carrots 
scraped and potatoes peeled very thinly before 
being added to the stew. 

POT ROAST 
(Serve 8) 

Place 4 lbs. of rump meat in a large iron kettle 
with a piece of suet the size of a cup. Pour over 
enough boiling water to cover. Simmer with the 
lid off until the water has evaporated, add 3 tsp. 
salt, then turn and brow^n each side of the meat 
in the hot fat. Remove and add to the fat V^ c. 
flour, mix thoroughly, scraping all of the brown 
particles from the sides and bottom of the kettle*^ 
Pour in cold water enough to make a brown sauce 
of *'2 to 1" consistency. 

Veal 

Veal is the flesh of a calf. In some states the 
law requires that calves must be six weeks old 
before they may be killed for veal. Since it is 



MEATS 71 

immature flesh it is much less nutritious than beef, 
but easier to digest. The bundles of fibers are 
softer and the connective tissue very easy to dis- 
solve. Being very poor in fats it is usually cooked 
with bacon or other fat meats. 

Sweetbreads are the thymus or ''throat 
glands" and the pancreas or ''stomach glands" 
of the calf and are at their best while the calf is 
still living upon milk. They are decidedly a pro- 
tein food and one of the easiest to digest. 

TO PREPARE SWEETBREADS 

Soak in salt water 1 hour. Throw into simmer- 
ing water and cook at that temperature from 1 
to 2 hours or until the connective tissue may be 
loosened from the glands. Cut in small pieces 
and serve with a cream sauce or use as equal part 
with peas or mushrooms, creamed. 

Pork 

Pork is the flesh of the hog. It is very rich in 
fats and contains a medium amount of protein. 
Tlie indigestibility of pork, for so many people, 
is due to the fact that the fat is so thoroughly 
distributed throughout the muscular fibers as well 
as around the muscles, also that these fibers are 
very compact. It is stated that it requires one 
hour longer to digest pork than beef. 

Acid fruits or vegetables are usually served 



72 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

with pork, so the acid may aid the stomach in 
eiimlsifying the fats; thus the combination of 
''roast pork and apple sauce." 

In a bottle put 1 tbsp, oil, 1 tsp. vinegar and 
shake well. The tiny particles into which the oil 
has been divided is called an emulsitication and is 
one step in digestion. 

The fats in cured bacon and ham are partially 
broken down and are more easily digested. For 
this reason crisp bacon is often given to children 
or people who can not digest other fatty food. 

The cooking- of pork should be thorough and 
very slow. In no instance should pork be broiled. 
Its compactness and its likelihood of containing 
disease germs, makes of it a dangerous food which 
can only be rendered safe by the slow and pro- 
longed application of heat. 

PORK CHOP WITH DRESSING 

Make dressing as for mock duck, using the 
tomato juice. Pile the dressing in a loose mound 
on the chop and bake in a moderate oven 30 min- 
utes. Make brown gravy as given in mock duck 
recipe. 

Dressing adds the much needed starches to the 
meats and is also a good way to use dry bread. 

The chop is cut from the small ribs and is very 
tender. It sells for from 15 to 22 cents per pound. 

Note: Read the papfe in Physiolo<r\' which tells of trichinae. 



MEATS 73 



1. Why do we need an acid with pork? 

2. How does it aid digestion? 

IIA.M SANDWICHES 

1 tbsp. ground boiled ham 1 tbsp. dressing 

y2 tsp. minced onion 

Mix ham, onion and dressing. Cut white bread 
very thin, spread ham upon one slice. Press the 
other down over it and trim in any shape de- 
sired. 

Bread from one to two days old makes the best 
sandwiches. 

To make good sandwiches have a sharp knife to 
cut thin, even slices, add filling as thick as one 
slice of bread. 

SANDWICH DRESSING 

1 egg yolk 1 tsp. sugar 

^ tsp. mustard dash salt and pepper 

2 tbsp. strong vinegar or lemon juice 

Mix well and then beat into it l^/^ c. salad oil, 
streaming the oil into the eggs while beating. If 
properly made the dressing will be as stiff as 
beaten ^%^ white. More acid may be added if 
liked. 

1. Why do we not butter the bread for sandwiches? 

2. Figure the cost of 1 dozen sandwiches. 

3. Name the food principles we have in a ham 
sandwich. 



74 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

SAUTE LIVER AND BACON 

Cut strips of veal liver 1 incli thick, and 1^2 
inches wide. Wash in weak vinegar water, dry, 
salt and roll in flour. Saute strips of bacon until 
crisp. Saute liver in bacon grease, cooking very 
slowly until browned on both sides and well done. 

To saute bacon, have a very low fire and turn 
the bacon often, so the rendering will be even 
and the crispness thorough. 

Liver is hard to digest owing to its compact- 
ness and rich composition. It is rich in protein 
but lacking in fats, therefore the reason for serv- 
ing it with bacon. When buying liver, accept only 
that from a veal or young pork which has had in- 
spection. 

TO COOK SMOKED HAMS 

Hams should be steamed, simmered or baked 
to obtain the best results. If baked, a cloth cov- 
ered with a thick layer of dough tucked around 
the meat in the pan, will keep the flavor of the 
meat within and will aid much in the cooking by 
holding the steam. The general rule is : Cook at 
a low temperature. 

Mutton 

Mutton is the meat of sheep. It is compact, but 
its muscular fibers are shorter and its connective 
tissues less elastic, therefore it is more easily 



MEATS 75 

digested tlian beef. Tlie fat of mutton is very 
hard, owing to the great amount of substance 
called stearin which it contains. Since stronger 
heat is required to melt it than for other fats, 
mutton fat is hard to digest. The different cuts 
of mutton are cooked as the different beef cuts, 
but owing to its strong flavor, mint sauce is usu- 
ally served with the roasts. 

Lamb is the immature meat of sheep and, since 
it contains more fat, is less digestible, but when 
properly cooked has, for some, a very fine flavor. 
Since it is lacking in protein but rich in fats, it 
is usually served with a protein vegetable such 
as peas. 

Fish 

The word fish as ordinarily used, means any 
water animal, as oysters, cod, salmon, etc. Fish 
is classified as : 

White fish, whose oil or fat is stored in the liver 
and not through the flesh ; as white fish, cod, perch, 
red snapper, etc. 

Red fish, whose oil or fat is distributed through 
and around the flesh; as salmon, trout, herring, 
etc. 

Shell fish, whose bodies have a hard shell-like 
covering to protect the soft flesh; as oysters, lob- 
sters, shrimps, crabs, etc. 

The meat of the white fish is more easily di- 



76 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

gested than that of the red fish and should there- 
fore be selected as a food by people of weak diges- 
tion or by invalids. 

As a food, the three are generally composed of : 

Water Protein Fat ^linerals 

White Fish 85% 12>4 7o >^% 2% 

Red Fish 64% 20 % 14% 2% 

Shell Fish 84% 12 % 3% 1%, 

The connective tissue is a substance which soft- 
ens very easily, and the meat fibers are very short, 
so that the cooking of fish should be at a moderate 
temperature and for a short time. 

When selecting fish that has been shipped care 
must be taken that the eyes are full, the gills 
red and fiesh firm. 

BAKED WHITE FISH — FRESH POTATO BALLS 

Use a fish that weighs from 2^/2 to 4 lbs. Clean 
and wipe fish with damp cloth. Rub the inside 
with salt, brush outside with melted butter, 
sprinkle with salt and pepper, dredge with flour, 
tie and bake in a dripping pan or skillet in mod- 
erate oven until flesh is firm and separates easily 
from the bone. Baste during baking with melted 
butter and hot water. When brown slip onto a 
hot platter, garnish with parsley and thin slices 
of lemon. This should bake from 30 to 45 min- 
utes. 



MEATS 77 

POTATO BALLS 



Cut small potato balls from raw potatoes and 
fry ill deep fat until well browned and tender. 
Salt and pile on platter around fish. 

CREAMED CODFISH 
(Serve 2) 

1/3 c. white sauce " 2 to 1 " 1/4 egg 

1 tbsp. shredded codfish dash nutmeg 

1/4 tsp. lemon juice 1 tbsp. buttered crumbs 

Mix white sauce and codfish in baking dish. Stir 
in beaten egg. Add lemon juice, nutmeg and 
crumbs to the top. Bake 20 minutes in moderate 
oven. 

The codfish is a large white fish of the north- 
eastern Atlantic. Those caught on the New Eng- 
land coast are eaten extensively by the people of 
that locality. Large canneries are located there 
which ship our fish to us. 

SALMON CROQUETTES 

(4 croquettes) 

yi c. shredded red sahnoii dash salt 

j4 c. white sauce "4 to 1" 6 drops lemon juice 

Mix lemon juice and salt with the salmon and 
add to the Avhite sauce. Cool. A\ hen cold mold 
into small cylinders, roll in crumbs, in beaten egg, 
in crumbs again and let stand until the egg has 
dried. Drop in deep fat and cook until a golden 



78 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

brown. Drain on cloth or soft paper and serve 
garnished with parsley. 

To test hot fat. When a crumb of bread will 
brown in 40 counts the fat is hot enough. 

In preparing the eggs for croquettes, add 3 tbsp. 
of water for each good sized egg and beat all to- 
gether until well mixed. One egg will roll from 
8 to 10 croquettes, depending upon the size. 

The salmon is a red-fleshed fish. The most ex- 
tensive fisheries of this country are on the north- 
western coast and especially in the Columbia river. 
The older fishes live in the sea, but ascend some 
large fresh water river which empties into the 
ocean to deposit their eggs in the fresh water. 
The young fish sometimes stay in the fresh water 
two years. 

In buying salmon, always select the reddish 
flesh. Pink or white salrnon is very inferior. 

1. What is the difference in composition between the 
cod and salmon? 

2. Which is easier to digest? Why? 

3. What foods are best to serve with fish? 

4. Why do fish courses usually contain potatoes and 
bread ? 

Why use lemon juice with fish '! 

SCALLOPED SALMON 
(Serve 6) 

1 lb. can red salmon c. milk 

2 c. cracker crumbs 1 tsp. salt 

1 tsp. lemon juice 



MEATS 79 

In a baking dish make alternate layers of the 
salmon and the crumbs, beginning and finishing 
with the crumbs. Shake over the salt, add the 
lemon juice by drops and then the milk. Bake in 
a moderate oven 30 minutes. 

Oysters 

Oysters, under the best conditions are very easy 
to digest though in proportion to their weight 
and usual cost they have not high nutritive value 
compared with other foods. 

They supply the most food value, when eaten 
raw, as cooking hardens and contracts them, but 
if cooked very lightly they are more appetizing to 
some people. 

Inland towns do not get oysters at their best 
and great care must be taken in selecting and 
preparing those that have been sealed and 
shipped. It is not advisable to use the liquor 
that comes with the oysters that have been packed 
in large kegs. Each oyster should be carefully 
washed and run through the fingers to remove 
shells. 

OYSTER SOUP 

J/2 c. oysters (selected and washed) 1 e. milk 
ji tsp. salt 1 tsp. butter 

Put milk and butter in double boiler and, when 
scalding hot, add the oysters and salt and heat 



80 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

until the gills of the oyster begin to curl. Re- 
move from the fire and serve. A dash of nutmeg- 
over the top improves the flavor for some persons. 

CREAMED OYSTERS 

34 ^'- oysters (selected and wjished) 
1 e. Avhite sauce "2 to 1 " 

Add oysters to hot white sauce and when the 
gills begin to curl, pour over toast and serve. 
The juice of Vi small lemon, squeezed over the 
top, improves the flavor. 

SCALLOPED OYSTERS 

( Serve () ) 

1 pt. oysters 1 tl)si). butter 

2 c. cracker cruinl)s 1 c. milk 

1 tsp. salt dash cayenne 

After oysters have been prepared, arrange in 
a baking dish alternate layers of crumbs and 
oysters, beginning and finishing with the crumbs, 
and over each layer of oysters dot pieces of the 
butter and some of the salt. Add the milk and 
bake in a moderate oven 20 minutes. 

CREAMED SHRIMP 

(Serve S) 

1 can dry shrimps 2 c. white sauce " 2 to 1 " 

diced whites of 2 hard-cooked eggs 



MEATS 81 

Pick the shrimps into small pieces, removing' all 
hard particles. Add the shrimps and egg white 
to the white sauce and serve on toast. 



CHAPTER VII 

CHEESE 

Cheese is believed to be the first form in which 
milk was preserved for future use. 

From the standpoint of the housekeeper cheese 
is of importance; first, because of its high nutri- 
tive value in muscle-forming material; second, 
because of the great number of foods with which 
it may be served in combination; and third, be- 
cause of its use as a flavoring. The general com- 
position of cheese is as follows : 

Water Protein Fats Milk Sugar Mineral 
347r 25% 347c 37o 47o 

Cheese is made from whole milk, skimmed milk, 
or cream. In some foreign countries goat's milk 
is used entirely, but American cheese is made 
from cow's milk. Rennet, a kind of acid, is added 
to the milk which causes it to curdle; that is, the 
casein is separated from the water, which is called 
whey. The whole is heated to a degree of 100 F. 
The whey is drained off and the curd salted and 
put into a press for a day. Then the cheese is kept 
several weeks to "ripen"; that is, develop flavor, 

82 



CHEESE 83 

which it does by the growth of bacteria. The aver- 
age cheese when fresh, contains about i/i its 
weight in protein, 1/3 fat, 1/3 water and 1/12 min- 
eral and carbohydrates. Owing to the addition of 
salt the percentage of mineral matter is high. 
There is always present a small amount of albu- 
men and milk sugar which clings to the curd. This 
is the cheese we ordinarily buy for our home use. 
Numbers of foreign makes are sold in this country 
which we shall study later. 

Digestibility of cheese. Cheese has, heretofore, 
been considered the cause of digestive disturb- 
ances, but recent experiments have shown that 
this is not a fact. There are persons with whom 
eggs or milk do not agree. The same principle 
applies to cheese in the average diet! The fatty 
acid which cheese contains in small amounts 
causes trouble in some stomachs just as do dough- 
nuts, pork or fats of any kind. The compactness 
of cheese, when eaten alone, renders it hard for 
the digestive fluids to liquify. However, it does 
not remain longer in the healthy stomach than 
some kinds of meat. 

Why cheese is served with pie. When cheese 
enters tlie stomach an excess of juice is called 
forth to digest it, and as pastry is also hard to 
digest, the extra juice more easily disposes of 
the pastry. Whj pastry is hard to digest will be 
studied later. 



84 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

CHEESE BALLS 
(To be served with a salad) 

1 egg white 1 e. grated cheese 

1 tsp. salt and cayenne 

Beat egg white, mix witli it tlie cheese and sea- 
soning. Mold in small balls and roll in cracker 
crumbs. Place on the ice about 30 minutes to dry 
the egg on the outside. Drop in deep fat and fry 
a golden bro^vn. 

WELSH RAREBIT I 

y2 c. white sauce "2 to 1" j4 tsp. salt 
2 tbsp. grated cheese speck cayenne 

Make white sauce in double boiler. Add cheese 
and seasonings and, when cheese has melted, serve 
on w^afers or toast. 

This is the least expensive rarebit that can be 
made. 

WELSH RAREBrr H 
(Serve fi ) 

1 c. diced fresh cheese 1 tbsp. bntter 

1 c. milk 1 egg 

}i tsp. salt dash cayenne 

Melt butter in a pan over water, add milk, then 
cheese and cayenne. When melted, add egg which 
has been thoroughly mixed, and cook one minute. 
Serve on wafers. Tomato juice may be used in- 
stead of milk. 



CHEESE 85 

CHEESE SANDWICHES 
( 1.1 saiuhviches) 

2 e. grated cheese (>4 lb.) Yz tsp. salt 
y^ c. mayonnaise 1 large pimento 

^ tsp. paprika )<4 c. chopped nuts 

Cut pimento very fine. Blend cheese, mayon- 
naise, salt, paprika, nuts (if used) and pimentoes. 
Spread as in other sandwiches. 

Estimate the cost. 

Thin slices of tomato, hard cooked egg or cu- 
cumber, in these sandwiches, adds much to their 
taste. 

('OTTAOE CHEESE 

Heat one gallon firm clabber very slightly or 
until the whey is separated from the curd. Drain 
the whey off by pouring the heated mixture in a 
cloth sack and hanging it where it can drip for 
an hour or so or until the curd is dry. Season 
with salt, pepper and cream, either plain or 
whipped. This may be used for salads, in pie, or 
in place of a vegetable. 



CHAPTER VIII 

CEEEALS 

Cereals are manufactured from the seeds or 
grains of the various members of the grass family. 
The grains most used are wheat, oats, corn, rice, 
rye and barley; and from these are prepared the 
numerous brands of breakfast foods which flood 
the markets. 

Oatmeal, the oat grain, is ground into small 
particles and is used mostly for porridge and 
gruel. 

Boiled oats, the grains are moistened and run 
between hot steam rollers, which flattens each 
grain and partially cooks the starch. For this 
reason oatmeal should be steamed from 5 to 6 
hours, while rolled oats will cook sufficiently in 
from 30 to 45 minutes. For a well-balanced cereal, 
rolled oats, when properly cooked, furnishes the 
most nutriment. 

Most cereals contain a large amount of starch. 
Oats, corn, and wheat contain, also, a large amount 
of vegetable protein, and are very rich in fats and 
minerals. 

Compare the foods from the f ollow^ing table : 

86 







cp:iie. 


.\LS 




87 






Carbo- 










Protein 


hydrates 


Fats 


iMiuerals 


Water 


Oats . . 


. . 12% 


'66% 


7 % 


3 % 


12% 


Wheat . 


. . 12% 


71% 


3 % 


2 % 


12% 


Corn . . 


. . i07f 


70% 


4 % 


2 % 


14% 


Rice . . 


. . 7% 


78% 


/2% 


1/2% 


13% 



Since cereals contain sucli a high percentage of 
starch and so little water, they must be cooked 
a long time in a large amount of water. 

Table for Cooking Cereals 









Method of 




Cereal Amount 


Water 


Salt 


of Cooking 


Time 


Oatmeal 1 c. 


4 c. 


1 tsp. 


steamed 


6 hrs. 


Rolled Oats. . . 1 c. 


2 c. 


1 tsp. 


steamed 


40 min. 


Cm. of Wheat 1 c. 


4 c. 


1 tsp. 


steamed 


40 min. 


Cornmeal .... 1 c. 


6 c. 


1 tsp. 


boiled 


40 min. 


Rice 1 c. 


10 c. 


1 tsp. 


boiled 


20 min. 


Rolled Oats.. . 1 c. 


4 c. 


1 tsp. 


boiled 


25 min. 



General directions for cooking cereals. Add the 
salt to the boiling water, and add the cereal to 
the water, stirring continually. If it is to be 
steamed, cook it over direct heat for 5 minutes, 
then over water the required length of time. 
If it is to be boiled, cook over direct heat the re- 
quired length of time. Cornmeal mush must be 
stirred continually the entire time of cooking. 
Rice must have a sufficient amount of water, that, 
as it boils, the grains may be kept apart. 



88 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

When cooking small amounts the evaporation 
will be greater and more water may have to be 
added to obtain the desired results. 

Digestion of cereals depends upon their being 
properly cooked or prepared. Some are so pre- 
pared before they are sent to the market that a 
large amount of their starch has been turned to 
dextrine (one of the functions of digestion) and 
they are advertised as ''pre-digested" foods. 

CREA^I OF WHEAT WITH DATES 
(Serve 4) 

3/2 c. cream wheat Vi tsjx salt 

2 c. boiling water 4 chopped dates 

Cook as directed in table. A(hl dates the last 
10 minutes. 

Since dates contain a large percentage of sugar, 
the combination with cream gives us a well-bal- 
anced food. Raisins may be used in place of the 
dates with the same results. 

What will it cost per person to serve Cream of Wheat 
with milk? 

CORNMEAL MUSTT 
(Serve 4) 

1 e. meal (> c. water 

1 tsp. salt 

Cook as directed in table. Einse a square or 
oblong granite pan with cold w^ater, turn mush 



CEREALS 89 

into it, let stand until cold. Remove from pan, 
slice in i/o inch slices, dredge with flour, saute in 
bacon drippings, and serve crisp or with a syrup. 
If served crisp, grated cheese may be sprinkled 
over the top. 

1. What is the cost per pound? 

2. Why should we eat a great deal of food prepared 
from cornmeal? 

3. What additional food element does it give to serve 
it with s.yrup? 

4. What food element is added when cheese is used? 

5. Suggest other combinations that add to its value. 

RICE WITH CHEESE SxVUCE 
(Serve 4) 

%. c. dry rice >4 tsp. salt 

■1 c. Ijoiliiig water 

Wash rice until the last water is clear. A good 
way is to put rice in a strainer and hold under a 
faucet until the water runs through clear. Cook 
as directed in the table, and when tender, drain. 
Pour over it the cheese sauce and serve immedi- 
ately or place in a hot oven and brown slightly, 
with buttered crumbs added to the top. 

CHEESE SAUCE 

1 e, white sauce "2 to 1" 2 tbsp. grated cheese 

Add the cheese to the hot white sauce and let 
stand until cheese is melted. A dash of cayenne 
may improve the flavor for some. 



90 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

1. Why wash rice so thoroughly ? 

2. What does rice lack as a food that the cheese and 
white sauce supply? 

3. Rice is rarely served alone, but usually in combina- 
tion with eggs, milk, meat, etc. Why this combination f 

4. Where does rice grow? How is it harvested? 
What is the cost per pound? 

BAKED RICE 
(Serve 4) 

Yi e. rice 1 tbsp. sugar 

\y2 qts. of milk 

Wash rice in one water. Mix with the milk and 
sugar and bake slowly for 3 hours. Cinnamon 
may be sprinkled over the top. Rice is washed 
in one water only so as not to lose the starch that 
will thicken the milk. 

ROLLED OATS APPLE SAUCE 

(Serve 4) 

^ c. rolled oats 1 c. water 

K' tsp. salt 

Cook as directed in table. Pile on top of each 
dish of rolled oats 2 tbsp. apple sauce, and serve 
with sugar and cream. 

A pound of rolled oats costs 5 cents and will 
serve 16 liberal portions. 

As the food elements are so well balanced in this 
cereal it makes a very economical, wholesome food. 



CEREALS 91 

1. What would it cost per service with milk and 
sugar 1 

2. "Why is apple sauce a logical combination with 
the oats? 

HOMINY GKITS 
(Serve 4) 

1 c. hominy grits 1 tsp. salt 

3 c. boiling water 

Cook as directed for all cereals. 
Serve with cream and sugar. Or cook very 
stiff and serve with maple syrup. 

Macaroni 

Macaroni is not, in a true sense, one of the 
cereals, but as it is manufactured from flour we 
study it along with the cereals. 

Macaroni is manufactured from a paste made 
of hard wheat flour and w^ater molded in slender 
tubes. Spaghetti and vermicelli are different 
forms of the same paste. It was first manufac- 
tured in Italy, and it is one of the principal food- 
stuffs of that country. The best is made from 
a fine grade of hard wheat which is very rich in 
a protein, called gluten, but is poor in water and 
fat. To obtain the best results, it should be cooked 
in plenty of water and seasoned well or combined 
with other foods sucli as fats, milk, butter, 
cheese, eggs, or meat stocks. 



92 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

MACARONI AU GRATIN 

(Serve 4) 

1 c. macaroni (broken) 1 tsp. salt 

4 c. boiling water 1/3 c. grated cheese 

lyo c. white sauce "2 to 1" 

Drop macaroni in the boiling salt water and 
cook until tender (about 20 minutes). Drain. To 
the white sauce add the grated cheese and, when 
the cheese has melted, pour over the macaroni. 
Put into a baking dish, cover with buttered crumbs 
and brown in a hot oven. 

When macaroni is to be served with roast beef, 
as is usually done, a tomato sauce instead of the 
cheese sauce adds to the general taste of the 
course. Whyf 

1. What is the meaning of "an gratin"? 

2. AVhy not serve beef and cheese together? 

3. What is the cost of macaroni per pound ? 

4. What is the cost per person with cheese? 

MACARONI WITH TOMATO SAUCE 

(Serve 4) 

1 c. macaroni 1 tsp. salt 

4 c. boiling water 

Cook as macaroni au gratiii. Turn over it the 
tomato sauce, put in a baking dish, sprinkle but- 
tered crumbs over the top and brown in the oven. 

TOMATO SAUCE 

1 c. strained tomato juice 2 tbsp. butter 

2 tbsp. flour ^ tsp. salt 
Make as white sauce. 



CHAPTER IX 

FLOUR 

Flour is made by grinding the grains of various 
cereals into a powder, as rice flour from rice, rye 
flour from rye, white flour from wheat. Some 
cereals are ground or broken into fine particles 
called meal, and thus we have, cornmeal, oatmeal, 
barleymeal, etc. Since we deal principally with 
the white flour, the term flour to us always means 
that made from wheat. 

Two kinds of wheat are used in making flour; 
namely, hard wheat and soft wheat. 

Hard wheat is so called on account of the high 
percentage of protein, called gluten, which it con- 
tains. It is planted in the spring and is harvested 
in the late summer. While it may be grown in 
the south as well as the north, the northern states 
seem to excel in this special wheat. The flour 
from this wheat is called ''bread flour" and is 
used especially for making bread mixtures. The 
gluten has a peculiar elastic quality, which makes 
it especially desirable in mixtures which are to 
have body or be without crumb. 

Soft irlieat has very little gluten in it, but a 

Read in a text on agriculture, "Wheat" and Farm Jiulletin 
No. 380. 

93 



94 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

liigli percentage of starch. The wheat for this flour 
is planted in the fall, grows all winter and is har- 
vested in the early summer. The flour from this 
wheat is called "pastry flour" and it is recom- 
mended for mixtures which are to be crumbly or 
short, as cakes or pastry. 

Whole wheat flour is made by grinding the 
whole grain of the wheat into a powder. 

Graham flour is made by separating the brown 
skin of the wheat kernel from the inner portion, 
grinding each separately and then combining. 
This is so often adulterated by the use of inferior 
brans that its use is not recommended when whole 
wheat flour can be purchased. 

Test for gluten. Take V4, c. bread flour and 
moisten it with enough cold water to make stiff 
dough. Let stand 15 minutes. Work this dough 
with the hands until it becomes smooth and elastic, 
then wash it under cold water until it gives out no 
more starch. Bake in a very hot oven. Its pe- 
culiar structure and quality may be plainly ob- 
served. This elastic property renders it unfit for 
a dough or batter which is to be kept short and 
crummy in texture ; as cakes, pastry, etc. 

Doughs and Batters 

Wlien we mix a liquid and some starchy mate- 
rial together, we call it either a dough or a batter, 
according to the degree of stiffness. Those that 



FLOUR 95 

we are able to handle and shape, are called doughs. 
Those that must be stirred or mixed with a spoon 
until the cooking is begun, are called batters. 
Flour and meal are the starchy materials most 
used. Milk and water are the liquids. 

Just flour and water mixed together with a little 
salt would be a very compact substance, hard to 
digest, so it is necessary to imprison air in these 
doughs and batters to make them "light" or less 
compact. 

The substances used to ** lighten" these mix- 
tures are baking powder, soda and an acid, air in- 
closed in beaten egg white, or yeast. In nature 
there are two opposing elements, acids and alkali. 
When brought together in the presence of mois- 
ture the stronger overcomes the weaker and a gas 
is formed. This gas formation expands and grows 
when subjected to heat. The gas, when entangled 
with the batter and forced to expand, pushes the 
dough upward in the pan. The tiny holes we see 
in doughs and batters are the cells where the gas 
bubbles were formed. 

The acids most used in cooking are cream of 
tartar, sour milk, sorghum molasses. The alkali 
used is soda. 

Good baking powder is composed of one part of 
soda to two parts of cream of tartar, with a small 
amount of starch added as a filler or to absoi'l) 
moisture. 



96 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

These definite statements should be thoroughly 
understood; acid plus alkali plus moisture forms 
a gas ; when heat is applied the gas expands. 

When baking powder is used. Dry acid (cream 
of tartar) plus dry alkali (soda) plus moisture 
(milk or water) forms a gas. The heat of the oven 
causes the gas to expand and the composition is 
light. 

When soda is used. Moist acid (sour milk or 
molasses) plus dry alkali (soda) forms a gas. 

Cream of tartar is made by drying and grind- 
ing the scum which collects on the top and around 
the sides of vats where grape juice is being boiled. 
This dried purple scum is bleached, refined and 
powdered, and is our commercial cream of tartar. 

Soda or sodium carbonate is a salt of strong al- 
kaline taste. It is formed in nature, as in soda 
lakes, etc. ; but for the most ])art is made artifici- 
ally, as by the burning of sea plants, etc. 

Tests 

1. Add 2 tbsp. cold water to 1 tsp. B. P. 

2. Add 2 tbsp. boiling water to 1 tsp. B. P. 

Which foams the more? What does that ex- 
plain ? 

What are in these bubbles? 

3. Add 2 tbsp. cold water to i/o tsp. soda. 

4. Add 2 tbsp. vinegar to Yi ^^V- soda. 



FLOUR 97 

Which foams the more ? What does that ex- 
plain ? 

5. Mix 1/2 tsp. soda and 1 tsp. cream of tartar. 

What happens ? Now add 2 tbsp. cold water and 
heat. What happens 1 

Albumen or egg white is very elastic and holds 
the air in small sacks which form during the pro- 
cess of whipping. Wlien flour is mixed with the 
beaten egg, the dough or batter is filled with air 
l)ubbles. 

A soft dough. Starchy material with sufficient 
liciuid to make it thick enough to handle, makes 
a soft dough. Since the kinds of flour dif- 
fer so widely in the amount of water they will 
absorb, it is never wise to use a given amount, but 
first, know your batter or dough, then add the 
liquid to the dry materials until the desired con- 
sistency is obtained. In the use of shortenings, if 
a compound is used, measure out 1/3 less, than if 
butter or lard is to be used. Compounds are con- 
centrated, while butter and lard have water in 
them. In these recipes, unless stated differently, 
compounds are used as a matter of economy. 

BAKING POWDER BISCTHTS 

(9 small biscuits) 

1 e. pastry flour J4 tsp. salt 

2 tsp. baking powder 2 tbsp. tirm shortening 

liquid to make soft dough 



98 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Sift dry ingredients together. Cliop in fat. 
When mealy-like add liquid. Handle and stir as 
little as possible. When all of the dry material is 
moistened, turn on a floured board, pat into shape, 
cut and bake in hot oven. 

Be sure that you cliop in your shortening. If 
blended or mashed the dough will be soggy and 
oily. When oil is used add it after the liquid. 

Save out a portion of the dough and work it with 
the hands, then bake it. Note the difference in 
structure. 

Is tliere any difference between the textures of the 
biscuits that were baked without handling and those 
baked after kneading? 

A well-made and properly baked biscuit will 
rise evenly all around with layers of crumb be- 
tween the top and bottom crust. A poorly made 
and baked biscuit will rise in the center and the 
outer edges will still touch the bottom crust. 

SODA BISCUITS 
. (8 small biscuits) 

1 c. flonr Ya tsp. salt 

14 tsp. soda 2 tbsp. fat 

sour milk to make soft dough 

Sift flour, soda and salt together. Chop in fat. 
Add the liquid and make as B. P. biscuits. 

The amount of soda required depends upon the 
sourness of the milk, usually it is 1/2 tsp. to 2 c. of 
flour, or 1 c. of butter-milk, in a soft dough. 



FLOUR 99 

There is a story told in tlie south, that at one 
time milk was very scarce and the women made 
griddle cakes and biscuits with orange juice. Could 
such a thing be possible ? 

QUICK CINNAMON ROI.LS 
(3 rolls) 

^ e. flour y2 tsp. baking powder 

1 tsp. shortening ]/16 tsp. salt 

liquid to make soft dough 

Mix as for B. P. biscuits. Roll 1 inch thick, 
spread with a thin layer of butter, sift over 1 tsp. 
brown sugar and i/^ tsp. cinnamon. Roll as for a 
jelly-roll cake, cut in three pieces and bake with 
scroll side up, in a moderate oven for 15 minutes. 
Raisins may be dotted over the surface when the 
sugar is sifted on. 

DFMPLTNGS 
(8 dumplings) 

1 c. flour 1 tsp. salt 

2 tsp. B. p. liquid to make soft dougli 

Sift dry ingredients, add liquid to make soft 
dough, leaving it moist. Scrape from a spoon. 
Have boiling the liquor in which a piece of meat 
has been cooked. Drop in the dough, a spoonful 
at a time. Cover closely and boil the broth, with- 
out lifting the lid for 12 minutes. Serve. 

1. How do dumplings differ from biscuits! 

2. Why do we use uo shortening? 



]00 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

SHORT CAKES. 

Make as for baking power biscuits, using twice 
the amount of shortening, rolling and cutting a 
larger size. Open, fill and cover the top with 
crushed strawberries, peaches or any fruit. Serve 
witli Avhipped cream. 

Stiff doughs. A mixture of a starchy material 
and enough liquid to moisten, allowing ease in han- 
dling, is classed as a stiff dough. Usually they re- 
quire from 6 to 8 times as much dry material as 
liquid. This amount depends upon the propor- 
tion of egg and fat in the mixture. 

STTGAR COOKIES 
(A gallon fiofk full) 

1 ('. butter 2 tsp. B. P. 

1 egg 1 c, sugar 

3 e. flour milk to make stiff dough (about }4 c.) 

Mix as butter cakes. When stiff, turn onto well- 
floured board and roll out a part at a time to a 
very thin sheet. Cut, sprinkle with nutmeg and 
sugar and bake in moderate oven. Keep pan and 
board well floured. 

INDIVIDUAL RECIPE FOR SUGAR COOKIES 

2 tbsp. butter M tsp. B. P. 

6 tbsp. flour 1 tsp. egg 

2 tbsp. sugar liquid to make stiff doufrb 

(about 1 tsp. milk) 



FLOUR 101 

Mix butter cakes by creaming the butter and 
the sugar, adding the egg, the flour, the B. P. and 
liquid. 

DOUGIINITS 
( 12 eakos) 

iy2 c. fionr 1/16 tsp. ench nutmeg, mace, cinnamon 
^ tsp. sah 6 tbsp. sugar 
3 tsp. B. P. 2 tsp. shortening 

y2 egg 
liquid to make stiff dough (about 3 tbsp. milk) 

Sift dry ingredients, chop in fat, a(kl egg and 
liquid, a littk^ at a time, until the right consistency 
for a stiff dough. 

Roll 14 in- thick, cut and fry in deep fat. Roll in 
sugar while hot. For individual recipe use i/j. of 
these quantities. 

If doughnuts fall to pieces in the grease it is 
not hot enough, or too much shortening has ])e<'n 
used. These were originally called Fried Cakes 
and those make from bread-dough, Doughnuts, l)ut 
now we call both Doughnuts. 

OATMEAL rOOKIES 
( lU cookies I 

1 egg 2/3 e. flour 

1/4 tsp. soda 1/3 c. butter 

2/3 e. rolled oats 1/3 tsp. cinnamon 
1/3 c. sugar 1 scant tbsp. water 

1/3 c. raisins 1/3 c. chopped nuts 



102 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Sift flour, soda, cinnamon and sugar; add oat- 
meal, butter, egg, raisins, water, nuts, and mix 
thoroughly. Drop these from a tsp. onto a dry 
pan and bake in hot oven from 13 to 15 minutes. 
These are better if allowed to stand in a stone jar 
several days before serving. Whj'-'? 

Drop batters. When a mixture of starchy mate- 
rial and liquid wdll drop from a spoon, yet retain 
something of its shape, it is a drop batter. Usually 
it is given as 2 measures of flour to 1 of liquid. 
Eggs and fat count as liquid. 

MUFFINS 
(12 nmmns) 

2 c. flour 4 tbsp. shortening 

y2 tsp. salt 4 tsp. B. P. 

6 tbsp. sugar 2 eggs 

liquid to make drop batter (about 2/3 e.) 

Sift dry ingredients. Chop in fat. Drop in 
whole egg and a little of the liquid. Mix, adding 
a little liquid at a time until it is the right con- 
sistency. Do not stir more than is necessary to 
mix well. Bake in hot oven. If a sweeter mufhn 
is desired from 1 to 2 tbsp. more sugar may l)e 
added. 

1. Notice the similarity of this batter to biscuit dough. 

2. AVhat are the differences? 



FLOUR 103 

How eggs leaven. In beating the white of eggs, 
we enclose air in small bubbles, these bubbles then 
become distributed through the dough when mixed 
in with it. In baking, the heat expands the air and 
also makes the walls of the air bubbles firm, so that 
a porous or spongo-like structure is retained. Be- 
fore hardened by heat, these cell walls are very 
easily broken down, for that reason we fold in 
beaten egg white instead of beating it in. This 
gives a fine spongy texture. 

TEA CAKES 
(12 cakos) 

2 c. flour }i c. sugar 

2 eggs 4 tsp. B. P. 

6 tbsp. shortening >^ tsp. vanilla 

3/2 tsp. salt /4 c. currants (cooked, 

dried and floured) 
liquid to make drop batter 

Sift dry ingredients together, chop in shorten- 
ing, add eggs and a small amount of liquid at a 
time, until consistency desired is obtained. Add 
floured fruit and flavoring and bake in mufhn tins 
in a moderate oven. Stir only enough to mix well. 

1. Work out the cost of these cakes. 

2. Compare with the same amount purchased at a 
bakeshop. 

3. What is the principal food element in these cakes? 

4. How do they differ from muffins? From biscuits? 



104 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

GRAHAM GEMS 

I 16 ycms) 

2 c. gTaham tioiir Yi tsp. soda 

3 tbsp. shortening 4 tsp. B. P. 
1 tbsp. sugar Yi tsp. salt 

4 tl)s]). molasses Sweet milk or water to 

make dro]) liatter 

Sift dry ingredients and turn the bran back witli 
them. Chop in shortening and add molasses and 
liquid, a little at a time, until the desired con- 
sistency is obtained. Bake in a moderate oven. 

1. AYhy us(' soda and K. W l)oth? 

FRITTERS 

(4 flitters) 

3/2 e. Hour 1)/ tbsp. sugar 

Yi egg 1 tsp. B. P. 

Y?, tsp. salt liquid to make drop batter 

(about 8 tbsp.) 

Sift dry ingredients. Add egg and liquid a lit- 
tle at a time. Beat thoroughly. Mix with it 4 
tbsp. of corn, or cut banana or any fruit. Drop by 
tablespoonfuls in hot fat and fry until golden 
brown. 

CREAM PITFFS 
(8 small puffs) 

Y2 c. flour Ya ^- butter 

2 eggs Y^ ^- boiling water 

Add butter to water and when boiling, add flour 
all at once and stir vigorously. Remove from the 



FLOUR 105 

fire, cool and add unbeaten eggs one at a time, 
beating until thoroughly mixed before adding the 
next egg. Droj) by spoonfuls on a buttered sheet, 
about 2 inches apart, shape as nearly round as pos- 
sible, and slightly higher in the center. Bake 
30 minutes in a moderate oven. If not thoroughly 
cooked they will fall. With a sharp knife open one 
side and fill with cream filling. 

No baking powder or soda is used. What acts 
as a leaven ? 

CREAM FILLING 

6 tbsp. sugar ^ tsp. salt 

3 tbsp. tiour 1 egg 

1 c. scalded milk ^ tsp. lemon extract 

Mix flour, salt and sugar, add egg slightly beaten 
and pour over gradually the scalded milk. Cook 
15 minutes in a double boiler, stirring constantly 
until thick, afterwards occasionally. Cool and 
flavor. 

This filling may be used for any of the cream pie 
fillings and will fill one small pie shell. 

AVhipped cream, sweetened and flavored with 
vanilla may also be used. 

CORN MEAT; MUFFINS 
(6 muffins) 

1 c. corn meal 1 tbsp. shortening 

2 tsp. B. P. i;4 tsp. salt 

1 egg sweet milk 



106 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Sift meal and salt in a bowl. Add tlie butter 
and pour over this % c. boiling water, and beat 
until cold. Break into it the egg and add the milk 
a little at a time until a drop-batter consistency is 
obtained. Dissolve the baking powder in the last 
tbsp. of milk used, mix it thoroughly with the bat- 
ter and bake immediately. It will require from 15 
to 20 minutes in a hot oven. 

SOFT GINGER BREAD 

(1 loaf I 

2^4 c. flour y2 tsp. soda, 
1/2 c. molasses 1 egg 

1 tsp. ginger J/2 c. sugar 

% e. nuts 4 tbsp. shortening 

34 tsp. salt hot water (about yi c.) 

Sift Hour, ginger, soda and sugar together. Chop 
in shortening. Stir in molasses, egg and nuts and 
enough hot water to make drop batter. Bake as 
soon as mixed, as the gas will form, expand and 
escape very rapidly. All mixtures containing a 
high percentage of fat or sugar must bake at a 
moderate or low temperature. 

Pour batters. When a mixture of starchy mate- 
rial and liquid will pour from one vessel to an- 
other it is called a pour batter. Usually it is equal 
parts of liquid and of flour, butter and eggs count- 
ing as liquid in a proportionate way. There are 
two classes of pour batter ; that is, thick pour and 



FLOUR 107 

tliin pour. We will note tlie dill'erence as we make 
the different mixtures. 

TIMBAL CASES 
(40 cases) 

V/z c. flour 2 tbsp. sugar 

2 eggs 1 tbsp. olive oil 

1 tsp. salt 1 c. milk 

Sift dry ingredients together, add whole eggs 
and a little milk at a time, beating continually. 
When well mixed, beat in the oil. 

If the timbals are not crisp when baked the bat- 
ter is too thick. 

If the timbals do not stick to the iron while 
cooking, the iron is too hot. 

If the timbals stick to the iron so that they can- 
not be removed, the iron is too cold. 

Timbals are used as cases for serving creamed 
foods, as creamed peas, chicken, beef, etc. 

Timbals belong to the class of thin pour bat- 
ters. 

GRIDDLE CAKES 

2 c. flour 4 tsp. B. P. 

1 tsp. sugar y2 tsp. salt 

1 egg 1 tbsp. shortening 

liquid to make pour batter (about 2 e. milk) 

Sift flour, sugar, salt and B. P. together. Chop 
in shortening. Add egg and milk and beat until 
thoroughly mixed. Stir the batter each time be- 



108 FOOD AND (M.OTHING 

fore pouring a fresh batch of cakes on the griddle. 
Bake by tablespoonfuls. When the cakes are full 
of bubbles on the top and brown on the under side, 
turn with a broad knife or turner. If large bubbles 
rise at once at top of cakes, the griddle is too hot. 
If the top stiffens before the under side is brown, 
the griddle is not hot enough. Never turn a cake 
twice. 

Put the griddle on the stove where it will be hot 
by the time batter is made. 

BREAD GRIDDLE CAKES 

Yz c. bread crumbs 1/16 tsp. salt 

J4 tbsp. butter 34 ^- flour 

Yz egg Yi tsp. B. P. 
J4 f-- niilk 

Sift the dry ingredients. Mix the ^^^ and stir 
it in the milk. Pour the ^^% and milk over the 
bread crumbs and when they are soft stir in the 
dry ingredients and the melted butter. 

WAFFLES 

(6 waffles) 

2 ('. flour 2 tbsp. sugar 

3 eggs 1 tsp. B. P. 

4 tbsp. butter Y^ tsp. salt, 
liquid to make pour batter, about 1 1/3 c. 

Sift flour, B. P., salt and sugar. Beat ^%^ yolks 
until lemon colored. Add to the dry ingredients to- 
gether with a little of the milk at a time. Melt 



FLOUR 109 

tilt; butter and beat in. Lastly fold in whites, which 
have been beaten stiff and dry. (The batter should 
be a very little thicker than a gxiddle cake batter.) 

Have both sides of the waffle iron hot and well- 
oiled. Put 1 tbsp. of batter on each compartment, 
spread out and let top down. When brown on 
under side turn the iron. 

If well made and bakeel the watfle will be crisp 
and tender. 

Estimate the cost of these waffles. 

SOUTHERN WAPFLP:S 
(These are less expensixe and \eiy good) 

2 c. tioiir 1 tb.s[). sugar 
Yi tsp. salt 1 egg 

3 tbsp. coriiineal 4 tsp. 1>. P. 

2 tbsp. butter liquid (about lyi c.) 

Sift flour, cornmeal, B. P., sugar and salt to- 
gether. Add egg and a portion of the liquid. Mix 
thoroughly. Add melted butter and mix again. 
Add enough more milk to make desired con- 
sistency. 

1. What effect does the eoi-unieal have ui)()u tlie 
bat ter .' 

2. Estimate the cost of these waffles. 



CHAPTER X 

BEVERAGES 

Beverages are liquids used as drinks to quench 
the thirst, as stimulants, and in a small way to sup- 
ply the body with food. 

Water, when pure and fresh, is nature 's remedy 
for thirst, and from three to four pints per day 
is needed to keep the body in a healthful condi- 
tion. 

Many acids and flavors are added to water to in- 
crease its popularity as a thirst quencher, but in 
so doing the benefit of the drink is often lost by 
the injurious etfects of the concoctions put into it. 
The evil effects of some of the ''soda fountain" 
drinks upon the nervous system cannot be over 
estimated ; and when a person feels that he cannot 
do his work without a certain number of these 
drinks per day, it is time to give them up alto- 
gether, as the stimulation is only artificial and is 
wrecking the nervous system. 

Tea and coffee contain an acid called tannin, 
which, if extracted in any considerable degree, has 
an injurious effect upon the digestive system by 

Note: Read in connection "Disease Oerms in Water" in your 
Physiology. 

110 



BEVERAGES 111 

retarding the fiow of the saliva and gastric juice. 
They also contain an alkaloid called theine or caf- 
feine (the same elements) which has a stimulating 
effect upon the nerves. 

Tea or coffee may be made in such a way that 
but very little of the tannin acid will be extracted, 
and to the improper making we attribute a large 
percentage of their injurious effects. 

Cocoa is made from the bean or seed of a native 
tree of the tropical countries of America. In the 
factories these beans are cracked into irregular 
bits known as cocoa nibs. These nibs contain so 
much fat that when they are ground, instead of 
becoming a powder, they form a paste, giving us 
our commercial Chocolate. In some cases a large 
amount of this oil is extracted before the grinding 
and then the powder is called cocoa. The oil is 
called cocoa-hutter. 

Cocoa contains an element called theobromine, 
similar to caffeine or theine, though much less 
stimulating in its effects. 

Cocoa is composed of: 

Water Fats Starch Nitrogen ]\Iinerals Theobromine 
4% 50';{ 14'/f 26% 4'/o 2% 

As you notice, cocoa contains a large amount of 
fat and starch and ranks as a high-class foodstuff. 
However, the presence of so much fat means that 
it is too rich for some people, though others can 



1V2 FOOD AND CLOTIITXG 

digest it with no difficulty. Tlie food value depends 
to a large extent upon the manner in which it is 
prepared. The milk and sugar adds to its nutri- 
ment. 





coco.v 






(1 quart) 




1 pt. 


])oiling' water 


6 tbsp. eoeoa 


1 pt 


scalded milk 


8 tbsp. sugar 



Mix the cocoa and sugar in a sauce pan; add the 
water and let it boil 5 minutes, or until it is smooth 
and free from any raw taste. Scald the milk in a 
double boiler and just before serving, add to the 
cocoa and beat well with a Dover beater. Do not 
allow the cocoa to boil after the milk has been 
added. Using the egg beater will prevent al- 
buminous skin from forming. The amount of 
cocoa used will depend upon the brand. Some con- 
tain more sugar and oil than others. 

TEA 

(Olio cup) 

1 tsp. tea .1 e. fresh l)oiling water 

Place tea in a hot scalded vessel which may be 
covered. Pour over it the boiling water and let 
stand covered 2 minutes, stirring with a spoon 
once. Pour the tea from the grounds into an 
eathern vessel that has been scalded. Serve. 



BEVERAGES 113 

A thin slice of lemon, a clove, a strawberry or a 
few drops of lime juice may be added to each cu]) 
to improve the flavor. 

Tea is made by infusion and not by boiling. The 
mistake of boiling tea is often made by inex- 
perienced housekeepers. Pouring the tea from 
the grounds after 2 minutes prevents a very great 
amount of tannic acid from forming. Tea is the 
leaves of a small bush, a native of China, Japan, 
Ceylon and India. The best tea is made from the 
young leaves and buds from the top of the bush 
and is called Orange Pekoe. If the leaves are dried 
as soon as picked, we have Green Tea ; if they are 
packed in such a way that a small amount of fer- 
mentation takes place, the color changes and we 
have Black Tea. During the fermentation, some 
of the acid is liberated and for that reason Black 
Tea is not as injurious as Green Tea. 

ICED TEA 

1 tsp. tea >{> f. boiling water 

Pour water over the tea and after 1 minute 
strain off liquid into a tall glass that is half full 
of cracked ice. Sugar and a thin slice of lemon 
add to the flavor of the tea* for some people. 

The mistake is often made of infusing the tea 
several hours before it is to be used, or even worse, 
many housekeepers pour water over tea leaves and 
allow them to stand for several hours. By these 



114 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

processes, tannic acid develops in very large 
quantities. 

Coffee 

Coffee is tlie berry or seed of a tropical ever- 
green tree. The fruit when on the tree resembles 
the cherry. When the flesh of the fruit begins to 
shrivel, it is taken from the tree and allowed to 
dry until the seeds can be easily removed. 

These seeds are roasted, ground and sold to us 
as the coffee we have in our homes. Coffee con- 
tains an element, caffeine, wdiich stimulates the 
nervous system. It is not a food in any sense, since 
it neillier builds tissue nor supplies heat or energy, 
but has the power of exciting extra action from 
the nervous system. In most cases a cup of strong 
coffe<' at night will defer sleep for hours. 

To make coffee. The coffee pot should be thor- 
oughly cleaned, scalded and sunned after each us- 
ing and the grounds thrown away. Many years 
ago, before science of foods was so clearly under- 
stood, people saved the grounds from one meal to 
another; put in fresh ground coffee, on top of 
the old grounds or just "boiled over" the old 
coffee. This is one of the most injurious practices 
ever employed by housekeepers. It is useless 
economy as the real coffee strength is extracted in 
the first few minutes after making, and it is detri- 
mental from the fact that tannic acid develops 



BEVERAGES 115 

very rapidly if tlie liciuid romains loiii»' on the 
^^Tounds. This exphiiiis wliy coffee turns (hirker 
in color after it has been made an hour or so. 

BOILKD COFFEE 
(10 pups) 

12 thsp. coffee 1 o. cold water 

1 egg white speck of salt 

5 c. boiling water 

Put coffee in large kettle, drop into it the egg 
white and mix it thoroughly with the grounds. Add 
the cold water and stir. Pour over the boiling 
water, place on the fire and boil slowly for 3 min- 
utes. Remove from direct heat and let settle for 
4 minutes. Strain through a fine cloth into another 
vessel. Serve. 

1. Why mix egg with the grounds? 

2. Why use cold water before the boiling water? 

PERCOIiATED COFFEE 

The coffee is held in a sieve-like receptacle at 
the top of the pot, while the boiling water and 
steam are carried up by means of a small tube and 
forced to filter down through the grounds. This 
is one of the most satisfactory ways of making- 
coffee, and, aside from the care of the pot, the 
easiest. Since very little of the water is lost by 
evaporation, a tbsp. of coffee for each cup of 
water, either hot or cold, is used, and is allowed to 
cook about 20 minutes. 



lie FOOD AND CLOTHING 

LEMONADE 
(Two o'lasses) 

2 tbsp. juice (3^ lemon) 4 tbsp. sugar 
3^2 c. boiling water 

Dissolve sugar in the boiling water. When 
cool add lemon juice, and ice water to suit indi- 
vidual taste. Adding the sugar to the boiling water 
completely dissolves it and adds to the flavor. One 
half c. grape juice may be added or 1 raw egg well 
beaten. 

Lemons grow best in warm climates, and are 
highly prized for their power of allaying thirst, 
developing flavors, aiding in emulsifying fats. 



CHAPTER XI 

TABJ.Iil SETTING AND SERVICE 

The girl who observes and reads, knows that the 
manner of table setting and the form of table 
service changes very often, and for that reason 
no detailed rules can be given which will be in 
good form for any specified length of time ; the up- 
to-date hostess observes what good authorities 
say, from time to time, and is guided accordingly. 
A few general rules at the present time are: 



^vm 


BB^^l 




j^^='^''-'^» ~~Z_!5^^^B 




.jf^ ^ ^^B 



PLATE II. A Table Simply Set for Breakfast or Luncheon 

1. Simplicity of arrangement, with strict ob- 
servance to straight lines. This means that the 
plates, silver and linen are placed on the table on 
a line, the napkin folded in a square or rectangle ; 
the ends of the handles of the knives, spoons and 

117 



118 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

forks are even with each other, and in line with the 
phite and napkins. 

2. The silver should be so arranged that the 
outside pieces will be used first. "We eat in." 
It may be fault of the hostess and not ignorance 
on the part of the guests, if the wrong piece of 
silver is used, as the table arrangement should 
be such that no mistakes can be made. Various 
spoons or forks have no place beyond the plate 
as was once the custom, when every gTiest had to 
"watch the hostess" to know what piece to use 
with the next course. 

3. The good hostess is the one wdio makes her 
guests feel comfortable. This can only be done by 
adhering to the general rules of simplicity. The 
bare table with doilies, for luncheons and break- 
fasts, is at present the favorite arrangement, while 
the damask is for the dinner table. With the ex- 
ception of this the following arrangements may 
be carried out in every detail : 



"uc* 



PLATE III. A Table Set for Three Courses 



TABLE SETTING AND SERVICE 119 

Table Setting 

(liifoinial) 

1. Cover the table with u clean thick cloth. This is 
called a silence cloth. 

2. Spread the table cloth over the silence cloth with 
the length extending from head to foot. It should be 
of such size that from 6 to 8 inches will extend over the 
sides and ends of the table. 

3. Arrange center piece of lace or embroidery and 
a low bouquet of flowers. 

4. Arrange space in front of each person's place for 
the plate when it is served. 

5. Arrange the silver in the order of its use, that to 
be used first farthest from the plate ; the knives and 
spoons on the right, the forks on the left, all the same 
distance from the edge of the table as the plate. The 
knives with the edges toward the plate, the spoons with 
the bowls up. The forks with the tines up. 

6. Place napkin at left of forks, the loose corners 
toward the edge of the table. 

7. Place water glass at point of knife. 

8. Arrange salt and pepper shakers and other neces- 
sary dishes at convenient places on the table. 

9. Place dinner plates before the host, with the meat 
and vegetable dishes in convenient places from which 
to serve. 

Table Service 

( Formal ) 

When passing bread, cream or sugar, and the 
guest is expected to serve himself, go to the left 
side, so that he may use the right hand. 

In refilling water glasses or coffee cups, go to 



120 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

the right side. There was, at one time a much 
used phrase, ' ' Serve to the right and remove from 
the left, ' ' and when convenient it may be followed, 
but if the dishes to be removed are at the right, 
it is far better to go to the right than to reach in 
front of the guest. The general rules for service 
are convenience, ease and consideration. 



CHAPTER XII 

CANNING, PRESERVING, PICKLING 

Tlie secret of successful preserving of foods for 
future use is perfect sterilization. This may be 
brought about by dyying, smoking, use of salt, 
thick syrups, acids, or enclosing the sterilized food 
in sterlised jars. 

Sterilization. Minute forms of life, which we 
call bacteria, are present everywhere in untold 
numbers. The air we breath, the water we drink, 
and the food we eat are teeming with them. These 
bacteria are practically the sole cause of the 
' ' spoiling" or fermenting of the various fruits and 
vegetables. The reproduction of bacteria, whicli 
is very rapid, is brought about by one of two 
processes. The bacterium either divides itself into 
two parts, making two bacteria where one existed 
before, or else reproduces itself by means of 
spores. Spores may be compared with the seed 
of an ordinary plant. These spores present the 
chief difficulty in canning the products of the or- 
chard and garden. 

All forms of bacteria are killed by complete 
sterilization. This is nothing more than enclosing 
the products to be sterlized in jars or cans that 

121 



122 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

can be sealed air-tight and submitting them to 
heat of sufficient temperature for a time — long 
enough to destroy the bacteria that cause the raw- 
material to spoil. Sterilization is readily accom- 
plished by the use of boiling water. There are 
three different ways by which this can be done. 
WHiile the parent bacteria can be killed at the tem- 
perature of boiling water, their spores retain their 
vitality for a long time even at that temperature. 

In large commercial factories, sterilization is ac- 
complished by subjecting the cans containing the 
various products to steam under pressure. By 
this process the temperature is raised to a degree 
higher than that of boiling water, thereby killing 
both bacteria and spores at the same time. Smaller 
factories and the different home-canning outfits 
usually make use of the "open-kettle" process. 
Here the cans are submerged in boiling water and 
kept at that temperature for a time sufficient to 
destroy bacteria and spores. The third process 
known as fractional sterilization, is that of keep- 
ing cans or jars in boiling water for a specified 
time upon each of two or three consecutive days. 

The process of boiling upon consecutive days is 
the safest method and is much to be preferred in 
home canning. The first day's boiling kills prac- 
tically all the bacteria, but does not kill the spores. 
As soon as the jars or cans cool, these spores de- 
velop a new lot of bacteria, which begin their 



CANNING, PEESERVING, PICKLING 123 

destructive work on the contents. The second day's 
boiling kills the new lot of bacteria before they 
have had time to produce spores. 

Boiling the third day is not alw^ays necessary, 
but it is advisable in order to be sure that the 
sterilization is complete. 

Jelly is fruit juices sterilized by the medium of 
hot syrup. All fruit juices wall not congeal or 
make jelly on account of the absence of a sub- 
stance called pectin, a gelatine or gum found in 
most fruits and vegetables. Pectin dissolves in 
boiling water and stiffens in cold. It is more 
abundant in the harder parts of the fruits, the 
core and the skin. Fruit containing the most pectin 
makes the best jelly. Quinces, crab-apples, cur^ 
rants, grapes and apples are rich in pectin. 

To make jelly. Usually fruit is lifted drip- 
ping from the last water where it was w^ashed into 
the cooking vessel, where it is cooked until the 
juice runs freely. It then is strained, measured 
and cooked for at least ten minutes before the 
sugar, which is measure for measure of the juice 
before it cooked down, is added. This is cooked 
until a drop on a cold plate wall congeal. If a path 
is made through the jelly on the plate and it 
does not run together, it has cooked sufficiently. 
To insure a clear jelly, the scum should be removed 
as it forms. When testing jelly remove from the 
fire each time before the test is made and wait until 



124 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

tlie liquid is still. As in candy making, a few sec- 
onds longer would make a difference, if it was just 
right at the time the test was made. The sugar is 
not added until the juice has partially cooked 
doAvn, as long cooking lessens the sweetness of 
sugar. Do not attempt to make more than four 
glasses of jelly in one vessel. It is better to make 
it often and in small amounts. 

Many housekeepers can their fruit juices in the 
summer, then make their jelly from this juice in 
small amounts in the Avinter. There are three rea- 
sons why this is a good plan: First, sugar is 
usually much cheaper in the winter ; second, fresh 
jelly tastes better and is freer from grape sugar; 
third, cool weather is more agreeable for this 
work. 

Use of paraffin. Melt any amount of paraffin 
over a very slow fire and when clear and thin, 
turn over the firm jelly to the depth of 1/16 of an 
inch. Paraffin may be used from year to year if 
washed and reheated. 

GRAPE JELLY 

Pick fruit from stems, wash and lift dripping 
into a cooking pan and heat till juice runs freely. 
Strain through cheese cloth bag. Use measure 
for measure of sugar and juice. Cook the juice 
a few minutes before adding the sugar. When a 
few drops will congeal on a cold plate, strain into 



CANNING, PRESERVING, PICKLING 125 

sterilized glasses and wlieii firm, about 12 hours 
later, cover with paraffin. 

CRAB APPLE JELLY 

Wash and quarter firm crab apples. Place in 
enough water to cover and when soft drain 
through cheese cloth bag. Use equal parts of sugar 
and juice and cook until a drop will thicken on a 
cold plate. 

Pour into sterilized jars and let stand covered 
24 hours. Cover with paraffin. 

BLACF<BEHKV JELLY 

Use only firm berries, not very ripe. Lift from 
the last water and place dripping in a cooking pan. 
Cook 15 minutes after boiling begins. Strain 
through thick cloth. Add equal parts of sugar and 
cook until a small amount will thicken on a cold 
])late. Strain again into jelly glasses. When firm 
cover with paraffin. 

CRANBEKUV JELLY^ 
(1 glass) 

1 ('. (•raiil)erries (selected) Y^ c. sugar 
1/3 e. water 

Pick over cranberries, wash and measure. Add 
water and cook slowly about 15 minutes. Press 
through strainer, add sugar and cook 5 minutes 
longer. Turn into molds and let stand until firm. 



126 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

The cranberry is the fruit of a slender creeping 
plant, a native of the Atlantic coast, but 
grows to some extent in the North Central States. 
It requires a sandy, marshy land and a high alti- 
tude. It is harvested about the first of August and 
may be kept in storage from 6 weeks to three 
months before being placed upon the market. 

Canning. When canning fruits, a small amount 
of sugar is usually added to the water which covers 
the fruit in the jars. The amount depends upon 
the taste. From 2 tbsp. to 1 c. for each qt. may be 
used. 

When canning vegetables, 1 tsp. of salt to each 
({uart of water may be used. Acids or preserva- 
tives should never be used, as they harden the 
cellulose. 

To prepare jars. AVash jars and tops in clean, 
warm suds. Place in a pan of cold water, enough 
to cover, and boil 20 minutes. This is called ster- 
ilizing. 

To Can Berries 

Pack a sterilized jar full of freshly washed ber- 
ries. Pour over them a syrup made of 1 qt. water 
and 14 ^- sugar. Place in a deep pan or kettle, 
which has in it some screening or wire enough to 
keep the jar from resting flat on the bottom of 
the kettle, and fill with warm water enough to 
come up to within an inch of the top of the jar. 



CANNING, PRESERVING, PICKLING 127 

Cook, with the lid off, for 30 minutes after the 
water begins to boil. Put on the rubber, which has 
been sterilized, and fasten down the lid per- 
manently. Invert the jar and let it stand for 24 
hours. Then place in the kettle in cold water, 
bring to the boiling point, and copk 30 minutes. 
Let cool and repeat the third day if there is any 
doubt that the sterilization is not complete. All 
berries may be cooked by this recipe. Pears, 
peaches, and apples may be cooked in water until 
they can be pierced, then packed in the jars. The 
first day's cooking will suffice. 

To Can Asparagus 

Cut stalks of proper length to fill jars. Wash 
in cold water and pack firmly in the jar, arranging 
stalks as uniformly as possible with tip ends 
up. Force extra stalks in the center of the can, 
tips down, to insure a firm pack. Pour over cooled, 
boiled water to which has been added the propor- 
tion of salt. Cook for the three days as directed 
for "Berries." Spores grow more rapidly in 
quick-growth fruit or vegetables. Asparagus, 
beans, corn, tomatoes, peas, etc., must all be 
cooked the three successive days. The general 
directions for asparagus may be followed with 
successful results when canning the other vege- 
tables named. 

Preserving. A syrup of equal parts of sugar 



128 FOOD AXl) CLOTHING 

and water is first iiiatle. Finn fruits wliicli have 
been pared and cut into pieces, are cooked in tliis 
syrup until tlie liquid will jelly. They should be 
canned in sterilized jars and perfectly sealed. Soft 
fruits and berries when cooked in this syrup fall to 
pieces and are called jam. JeiUI tests for thorough 
cooking are the same as for preserves. When fruits 
with the seeds removed are cooked until the cel- 
lulose is entirely softened and much of the mois- 
ture evaporated, they are called butters. Sugar 
and spices are added just before the butter is taken 
fi-om the fire, to suit the individual taste, though 
care must be taken not to add so much that the 
natural taste of the fruit is destroyed. 

ORANGE MARMAT.ADE 

6 oranges 3 qts. water 

2 lemons 6 e. sugar 

Cut oranges and lemons in thin slices, crosswdse, 
removing the seeds. Add to the water and let stand 
in a covered vessel 24 hours. Boil slowdy for 3 
hours. Add the sugar and cook until the juice 
will test as jelly. 

Pickling". A weakened \'inegar water with sugar 
and spices added to suit the taste, is scalded and 
turned over fruit or vegetables in jars, and sealed 
The fruit is usually cooked in simmering w^ater 
until tender, packed in the jars and the pickling 
juice poured over the fruit until the jar is filled. 



CANNING, PRESERVING, PICKLING 129 

Peaches, apples, pears, melon rind, beets, beans, 
etc., are used mostly for pickling. Melon rind 
should be soaked in strong salt ice water for an 
hour before cooking. 

SALTED CHERRIES 

Fill fruit jars with fresh washed cherries on the 
stem. Pour over them equal parts of vinegar and 
water with 1 tsp. of salt to each pt. of liquid. All 
ingredients should be cold. Seal. 

1. Why do we cook soine fruits and vegetables three 
successive days in jars, while others require only one 
day? 

2. Why do we wait until a great amount of water 
has evaporated from oui- jellies and preserves before 
adding the sugar? 

3. What is the length of time recpiired to sterilize 
jars, lids, etc? Why? 



SECOND YEAR 

CHAPTER XIII 

EGGS 

As a thickening agent. Since protein coagu- 
lates when slow heat is applied and eggs contain 
a high percentage of protein, their value as a 
thickening agent may be readily seen when the 
proper amount of heat for a given length of time 
is applied. The proper cooking of eggs as this me- 
dium is absolutely a test of skill and judgment. 
If cooked 10 seconds too long or if too much heat 
is applied the dish may be ruined. Foods thick- 
ened by eggs are called custards. 

Custards are a composition of eggs and milk 
cooked very lightly. In custards of the best qual- 
ity only sugar, salt, and flavoring are added, but 
in inferior custards, starchy materials are used in 
place of the required number of eggs. There are 
two classes of custards, finn and liquid. The firm 
custard is cooked, undisturbed, until firm, AVhen 
properly cooked, it has a smooth jelly-like con- 
sistency throughout. If cooked too long or at too 
high a temperature, it is full of holes, curdles and 
wheys. A firm custard is cooked sufficiently when 

130 



EGGS 131 

the center is firm. Thin custards are cooked over 
water, which is below the boiling point, until they 
coat the spoon, and are stirred during- the entire 
time required for cooking. If cooked too long 
they will curdle. 

Proportion of egg to milk: 

1 e. milk and 1 egg gives a thin oustard. 
1 e. milk and 2 eggs gives a firm custard. 
1 tbsp. milk and 1 egg gives a custard that may be 
cut in figures for consommes. 

THIN CUSTARD 

^2 c, milk 1/16 tsp. salt 

8 drops vanilla 1 tbsp. 1 tsp. sugar 

^ egg yolk 

Beat the yolk until light colored. Add the sugar 
and salt and mix thoroughly. Heat the milk over 
hot water and stir in the yolk mixture. Stir con- 
tinually until it coats the spoon. Remove, add 
vanilla and pour into a soup plate. Beat the egg- 
white until stiff and dry, folding in 1 tsp. sugar. 
Drop by spoonfuls on the top of the custard, 
forming each portion in cone shape. 

This is decidedly a child's dish, though grown 
people would be much better off if they ate more 
desserts of this simple variety. 

FIRM CUSTARD 

1/2 c. milk 1/16 tsp. salt 

1 egg 1 tbsp. 1 tsp. sugar 

(lash nutmeg or 8 drops vanilla 



1;12 FOOD AND (M.OTTTTXG 

Mix the eg;i>- white and yolk until thoroughly 
blended. Add sugar and salt and beat until well 
mixed, then add t(> the milk and stir until the sugar 
is dissolved. Strain into buttered baking cups and 
cook in a moderate oven, with the cups in water, 
until the center is firm. The water in which the 
cups are placed nmst not be too hot or the custard 
will curdle at the bottom. This will require about 
30 minutes to cook. 

1. Give the different food elements in ;i enstard. 

2. Why is eiistard easy to digest? 

3. Why is it a good food for cliildi'cn or invalids? 

BREAD PUDDING 

^ e. bread chunks 1^ tbsp. sugar 

3/2 c. milk ^ egg yolk 

1/16 tsp. salt dash nutmeg 

Beat the yolk thoi-oughly, add the sugar, salt 
and milk and stir until the sugar is dissolved. Pour 
this over the bread chunks and turn all into a but- 
tered baking cup, and bake as for firm custard. 
Raisins may be added to this. Sprinkle the nut- 
meg over the top or add 8 drops of vanilla to the 
milk before mixing it with the bread. When the 
pudding is firm, remove from the oven, spread a 
layer of jelly over the top and on this roughly pile 
the white of the egg, after it has been beaten stiff 
and dry, with 2 tsp. sugar added. Return to the 
oven to brown slightly. 



EGGS 1:33 



Bread Puddini^' is a very old and wbolesome des- 
sert, but it has l)eeii out of favor on account of 
the poor substitutes which have been offered in 
the jjhice of good Bread Pudding. 

CHOCOLATE CITSTARD 

y^ c. milk 2 tbsp. sugar 

Yo egg 1/16 tsp. salt 

1 tbsp. shaved chocolate 1 tbsp. tlour 

8 drops vanilla. 

Blend the sugar, flour, salt and eg^ together. 
Heat the milk and chocolate over hot water until 
the chocolate has dissolved. Stir into the egg mix- 
ture and cook for 8 minutes. Add vanilla and turn 
into cold molds. Serve cold. More chocolate and 
sugar may be added to suit the taste. 

BLANC MANGE 

lA e. milk 1 tbsp. flour 

y2 e^^ 1/16 tsp. salt 

2 tbsp. sugar 8 drops vanilla 

Make as Chocolate Custard. Serve with chopped 
nuts and maple syrup or any crushed fruits over 
the top. 

RICE PUDDING 

% e. cooked rice ^4 ^- liquid custard 

(uncooked) 

Mix rice with custard, add raisins, and bake in 



134 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

slow oven until firm. Beaten egg white (meringue) 
may be added to tlie top. 

MACAROON PITDDING 
(Serve 4) 

^ tbsp. gelatine 3 tbsp. sugar 

2 tbsp. cold water 1/16 tsp. salt 

1 e. milk 1/3 e. crushed macaroons 

1 egg yolk y2 tsp. vanilla 

2 tbsp. crushed almonds 1 egg white 

2 tbsp. white raisins (cut in halves) 

Soak gelatine in cold water for 10 minutes. Make 
liquid custard of egg yolk, milk, sugar and salt. 
Add tbe gelatine and, when thoroughly dissolved, 
put on ice. When it begins to tliicken, fold in the 
stiffly beaten egg white, add the almonds, mac- 
aroons and raisins, and mold either in individual 
dishes or in loaf form. Serve with whipped cream. 



CHAPTER XIV 

BEEF, FOWL, GAME 

The tender cuts of beef are from the loin, the 
least used of any of the muscular parts of the body 
— hence its tenderness. The connective tissue is 
small in amount and the tubes making up the tissue 
bundles are thin, but contain a high percentage of 
liquid. 

Effect of heat. For this reason the tender cuts 
of beef require but little cooking and it may be 
done at a high temperature. The extreme heat ap- 
plied to the surface of the meat, causes the juices 
to change to steam which cannot escape because 
of the crust formed on the outside. This steam is 
sufficient to break down the connective tissue and 
to coagulate the albumen. 

Thei food value. These cuts of meat are desir- 
able chiefly because of the ease with which they 
may be digested, but as a matter of fact, they do 
not contain as much nutriment as some of the 
tough parts. The loin cuts are the choice pieces of 
meat and are expensive. The value received from 
them is only attained by proper cooking. Many 
fine pieces of meat are prepared in such a way that 

135 



136 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

they contain no more nutrition or taste, and are 
no better than the cheapest cut of the beef. 

PAN-BROILED STEAK 

Select a porter-house or sirloin steak, 1 to li/. 
in. thick. Wipe with damp cloth, trim off fat and 
bone. Rub a piece of the fat over an iron skillet 
and, when it is smoking hot, put in the meat, in- 
creasing the heat, and turn constantly from 10 to 
20 minutes. This turning will prevent the juices 
from escaping. Serve on a hot platter, with slices 
of lemon, parsley or a butter sauce. Do not add 
salt or pepper until the last. A sauce may be ma(k^ 
by browning 4 tbsp. each of butter and flour, add- 
ing 2 c. milk and, when sufficiently cooked, turning 
in 1 c. mushrooms. This may be served over the 
steak or with it. 

1. Locate on the meat chart a cut of sirloin steak. 

2. AVhy will it cook in 10 inin.. while it requires 1 hr. 
for a round steak? 

3. What is the cost of sirloin steak per lb. .' 

BROILED STEAK 

Many stoves have broiler attachments and, when 
possible, this is the ideal way to cook tender steaks. 
Prepare as for pan-broiled. Lay on the grill of 
the broiler and with the tire high, cook from 8 to 
10 minutes. 

PLANKED STEAK 

Prepare steak as for pan-broiling, using a pre- 



BEEF, FOWL, GAME 137 

pared oak board instead of the skillet. Heat the 
plank in a hot oven, lay on the steak and return 
to the oven, the temperature very high. Cook from 
10 to 20 minutes. Remove, spread with butter, 
salt, pepper, and garnish with potatoes forced 
through a pastry bag, heated mushrooms and 
creamed peas. Slices of lemon and parsley add 
to the appearance. 

ROAST BEEF AND BROWN GRAVY 

Buy the third, fourth and fifth ribs with the 
bone. This will w^eigii from three to four ]l)s. 
Bone, wipe with a damp cloth, add 1 tsp. salt for 
each pound, in the places where the bones were 
removed. If desired, 1/16 tsp. ground cloves, some 
paprika and a small piece of bay leaf may be 
added. Cut the suet in small strips and add it 
also. Roll and tie and sear (in the baking pan 
on top of the stove) until w^ell browned on both 
ends. Fasten the lid and bake in a moderate oven, 
allowing 20 minutes to the pound. Do not put 
water in with the meat. Remove to a platter and 
add to the liquid and fat in the pan equal parts of 
flour, and brown. Pour over this the water from 
the bones and cook as for white sauce, scraping 
loose all brown particles from the edge and bot- 
tom of the pan. If the gravy is light in color small 
amounts of beef extract may be added. 

To bone a roast. With a sharp knife cut very 



138 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

close around tlie bones and remove. This does 
not require any special skill and is a matter of 
great economy. Besides knowing that it is done 
in a cleanly manner, the bones may be placed in 
cold salt water and simmered for an hour or so, 
and this extract used for soups or gravies. 

To carve a rolled roast. Place the fork, tines 
up, in the side next to the carver, midway of the 
roll as it stands on end. Then with a sharp knife, 
slice the meat, beginning at the farther side and 
cut toward the fork. Remove each slice, with the 
knife, to the edge of the platter. The fork should 
not be removed until the carving is done, except 
to lower its place in the roast. 

1. Why is boning a roast at home an economy? 

2. Why is it a cleaner method? 

3. How can the bones be used? 

FowtjS 

The breast of chicken and game is considered 
to be very easily digested, while the dark meat is 
tough and hard to liquify. The cooking of fowls 
and game should be at a low temperature and for 
a long time, except in the case of very young birds, 
when the breast may be broiled. The greatest fault 
of the untrained housekeeper in the cooking of 
these meats, is in trying to hurry the process, while 
only the long, slow application of heat can bring 
about the desired results. 



BEEF, FOWL, GAME 139 

To dress a chicken. The head should be sev- 
ered from the body to allow free bleeding. Im- 
merse the entire chicken in a pail of water just be- 
low the boiling point, holding it by the feet, and 
lifting it up and down until it is entirely wet, then 
plunge in a pail of cold water. When cool enough 
to handle, pull or rub off the feathers. If the 
chicken is young, there will be small inn feathers 
on the wings, back and legs ; if it is old, there will 
be long hairs on the skin. To remove the pin 
feathers requires long, careful work by scraping 
and pulling with a knife. The hairs may be singed 
off by holding over a quick blaze. 

If the fowl is to be cooked whole, an opening 
should be made just below the breast bone, from 
thigh to thigh and the internal organs removed, 
care being taken that the gall is not burst. The 
liver, gizzard and heart should be cut from the rest 
of the organs and cleaned for use. If the chicken 
is to be jointed the following directions may be 
observed : First, remove the wings ; second, re- 
move the first and second leg joints together, then 
separate; third, open the body below the breast 
bone by cutting the thin membrane there and be- 
tween the back and the breast ; fourth, remove the 
internal organs, with their fastenings to the back ; 
fifth, cut the thin membrane which joins the back 
to the breast and sever ; sixth, break the back from 
the ribs, and remove the oil sack ; seventh, cut the 



140 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

neck from the ribs ; eighth, remove the wish bone 
and divide the breast. 

FRIED CHICKEN AND CREAM GRAVY 

Joint a small, young chicken. Salt, i^epper and 
roll in flour. Have an iron skillet warming. Put 
in it 14 c. lard and 14 c. butter. When melted and 
hot, lay in pieces of chicken and turn fire low so 
that the pieces will brown but not burn. Turn 
often to brown evenly. When well cooked, re- 
move to hot platter. Dust into the hot grease 4 
tbsp. flour and 14 tsp. salt, stir until brown. Add 
2 c. rich sweet milk and let simmer. Serve in 
separate dish. 

SMOTHERED CHICKEN 

Joint a young fat hen. Salt (1 tsp. for each lb.) , 
roll each piece thoroughly in ilour and lay in a 
baking dish. Pour over this 3 c. cold water and 
place in a moderate oven and cook, undisturbed, 
for two hours. 

BAKED TriiKKY 

When baking- a young turkey allow 15 minut(\s 
for each pound. An old bird should be steamed 
an hour and then baked the required time. When 
thoroughly cleaned inside and out, salt, allowing 
1 tsp. for each lb., fill with oyster or chestnut dress- 
ing, sew the skin together at the neck and at the 
lower opening ; tie the legs together and the wings 



BEEF, FOWL, GAME 141 

to the body. Bake in a covered pan, at a moderate 
temperature the required time. When an open 
pan must be used, a cloth covered with a layer of 
dough may be laid over the bird to hold the steam. 

BAKED CHICKEN 

■ Follow directions for Baked Turkey, using an 
onion dressing. 

ONION DKESSING 

2 tbsp. melted butter or 1/16 tsp. pepper 

baeon fryings Yi tsp. salt 

2 c. bread chunks 3^ tsp. sage 

2 tbsp. chopped onion 

hot water to thoroughly moisten 

When mixing, use a fork, so as not to make the 
dressing compact. 

OYSTER DRESSING 

2 c. bread chunks 2 tbsp. melted butter 

1 tsp. salt 1/16 tsj). pepper 

1 c. oysters (if large, cut water to thoroughly moisten 
in fourths) 

BAKED GOOSE 

Simmer gently in a covered vessel 1 hour. Stuff 
with dressing made of 2 c. bread crumbs, 1 c. diced 
raw apples, Vi> c. raisins, 1 tsp. salt, cold water to 
moisten. Bake slowly 15 minutes for each lb. 
Make gravy from water in which goose was par- 
boiled. 



142 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

QUAIL 

Quail should be picked dry, never skinned or 
scalded. Bemove head and feet and open down 
the back. This leaves the breast whole. Follow 
recipe for fried chicken. 

Carving a Fowl 

The craving knife should be thoroughly sharp- 
ened before it is placed on the table. Never place 
the steel on with the set. The rasping sound that 
is made as the knife is drawn over the steel is 
very disagreeable and it is the duty of every house- 
wife to see that this is not a necessary preliminary 
to the carving. 

To stand while carving is permissible, but as 
sitting is more agreeable to most people, it is as 
easy to learn one way as another and beginners 
should practice sitting while carving. 

If possible, have a platter large enough to hold 
the bird and the slices after carving, if not, an 
extra one should be provided. Lay the bird on 
the platter with the head toward the left. The 
fork is placed astride the breast bone and should 
not be removed up to the No. 8. 

1. Sever the drum stick from the second joint. 

2. After the thin membrane which joins the second 
or thigh joint to the body has been cut, this piece can 
be pushed from the body with the dull side of the knife 



BEEF, FOWL, GAME U3 

and then severed by raising the bird a little to avoid 
cutting against the platter. 

3. Cut around the wing and sever the same way. 

4. If but half of the bird is needed, begin to slice the 
breast by letting the knife follow a slanting line from 
the front side of the breast toward the wing joint, 
otherwise remove wing and leg on both sides tirst. 

5. Remove wish bone by putting knife under it at 
the point of the breast and turning it back. 

6. Remove shoulder blade by putting the point of 
the knife under it, turning it back and cutting the 
sinews. 

7. Tip the bird slightly, and remove the meat known 
as the oyster and other pieces of meat found on the side 
bone. 

8. Cut through the skin between the breast and ribs 
in order to have access to the dressing. 

9. Cut through the cartilage which unites the breast 
and ribs and remove the breast bone. 

10. Turn the piece over, then place the back of the 
knife on the piece which unites back and ribs, lift the 
back piece with the fork, thus breaking the joints and 
separating the two. 

11. Lay the back on the platter inside down and 
separate in two pieces. 

12. Cut thigh in two or three pieces. Serve each 
plate with light and dark meat and dressing. 



CHAPTER XV 

WARMED-OVER DISHES 

In no other way does a housekeeper display her 
skill so much as in the making of left-overs into 
attractive and nutritious dishes. It has been truly 
said that the untrained housekeeper wastes half of 
what she buys. 

To be successful she must know the classes of 
foods, the proportions of each necessary to make a 
balanced food, which and how much of flavoring 
foods will be required to give the desired result. 

Generally we observe these rules : If the left- 
over is a protein, we must add a starch and fat to 
make a balanced food; if it is a starchy food, we 
add protein and fat. Such flavoring as onions, 
smoked meats, spices, etc., are used when the 
foods in combination have no decided flavor. Often 
in the using of left-overs from roasts, steaks, etc., 
the flavor has been extracted in the cooking or it 
is the end cuts which have no particular flavor. 

Condiments 

Seasoning and spices are used to give relish to 
food and to gratify the taste. 

There is great danger of forming an appetite 
for these seasonings to such a degree that the 
flavor of the food may be entirely lost, and as they 

144 



WARMED-OVER DISHES 145 

also stimulate the How ol' tlio (li.ij;estive juices their 
excessive use is injurious from that standpoint. 

Pepper is either black, white, or red. Black 
pepper is the whole dried pepper corn, ground. 
AYliite pepper is dried pepper corn ground after 
the black outer husk is removed. Red pepper, or 
Cayenne, is ground dried pods of the Chili pepper. 

Ginger is an underground stem and contains 
starch. AVhen young it may be preserved and is 
called candied ginger. When dried it is ground 
into a powder. 

Cinnamon is the bark of a small tree, the best 
grade coming from Ceylon. We may buy it eitlier 
as a bark or powder. 

Nutmeg and mace are from the same plant. Nut- 
meg is made by grinding the nut and mace by 
grinding the covering of the nut. The tree is cul- 
tivated in the West Indies. 

Cloves are the flower buds of a plant. These, 
when dried, may be ground or used whole. 

Allspice is the dried pimento, ground. 

Pimentoes are the berries from a tree in the 
West Indies. 

MEAT PIE 
(Serve 2) 
From cold roast, steaks, or boiled meat. 
1 e. chopped meat Salt-pepper 

1 tbsp. chopped onion paprika 

1 c. white sauce "2 to 1" to suit taste 
1 tsp. dried parsley 



146 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Add other ingredients to white sauce and pour 
in a baking dish. Spread over the top a crust 1/8 
in. thick made from biscuit dough, using twice the 
amount of shortening. Bake 20 minutes in a hot 
oven. 

1. Why add onion and parsley ? 

2. Tell how yon eonld make over into a palatable dish, 
1 c. rice, 1 c. cold mashed potatoes, 1 c. canned tomatoes. 

HASH BALLS 

1 tbsp. ground meat 1 tbsp. cold mashed pota- 

^ tsp. salt toes or rice 

Yi tsp. diced onion 
Yi, egg or 1 tbsp. of white sauce or tomato sauce " 2 to 1. " 

Mix all together, mold into small flat cakes, and 
saute in bacon f ryings until browned on both sides. 

1. Why use bacon f ryings? 

2. Name the food elements in these cakes. 

TAMALA PIE 

(Serve 6) 

1 c. ground meat from 1 c. hot water with 1 tsp. 
roast beef extract or 1 c. 

2 c. hot cornmeal mush brown gravy 

Season the meat with chili pepper and paprika 
to suit the taste. Mix thoroughly wdth the gravy. 
Line the bottom of the pan with a layer of the 
mush, turn in the meat, and spread the remainder 



WARMED-OVER DISHES 147 

of the mush on top. Bake in a hot oven 20 minutes. 
There are several brands of the chili peppers on 
the market, some inferior and some very good. 
The use of these peppers is not recommended ex- 
cept in very small amounts to serve as flavoring 
in an otherwise tasteless dish. 

CREAMED CHICKEN 

(Serve 10) 

Use meat from a cold roasted or steamed chicken. 

J4 c. butter or chicken fat 1 tsp. salt 
2 c. milk or chicken broth 2c. cut chicken 
^ tsp. white pepper ^ c. tiour 

Cut chicken in small pieces. Make white sauce 
of fat, flour, milk. Add salt and pepper. Put 
chicken in white sauce and when warmed through 
serve on toast, wafers or rosettes. 1 c. mushrooms 
may be added to the white sauce. 

When serving light refreshments, one four lb. 
hen will make about 4 c. of cut chicken and should 
serve from 25 to 30 people. 

CREAMED BEEF 

The same proportions may be used as for 
creamed chicken. However, the gravy from meat 
will make a better sauce and often a few pieces 
of onion and diced potato are added. This is 
sometimes called hash. 

Croquettes are another very attractive form of 



148 FOOD AND CLOTHTNG 

using up left-overs, but for some they are indi,2:est- 
ible on account of tlie fat they absorb; thougli, if 
properly made and cooked, very little fat pene- 
trates through the egg and crnm coating. 

A very heavy white sauce is made, — 1 c. milk, 2 
tbsp. fat and 4 of flour. When cold, the meat or 
vegetable, ground in small particles, is stirred in, 
with such seasonings as will blend well. This is 
made into small cylindrical shapes, rolled in 
crumbs, in beaten egg, and set aside to dry, about 
30 minutes. The thorough drying prevents them 
from falling to pieces in the hot fat. Heat the 
fat until a piece of dry bread will brown in 40 
counts, then drop in the croquettes and cook until 
a golden brown, from 40 to 60 seconds. 

The following make very good croquettes : 
Ground chicken, veal, beef, ham; or rice, mac- 
aroni or cheese. . The amount of white sauce is 
1/3 that of the other material. 

MINCEMEAT 

(2 (HUU-ts) 

1 lb. chopped apples 34 lb. raisins 

1 lb. ground boiled meat 2 tsp. salt 

1 lb. currants y^ e. sugar 

1^ c. apple vinegar ^^ lb. suet 

(weakened to suit taste) J/^ tsp. cinnamon 

% tsp. mace 5^ tsp. allspice 

Chop apples, meat, and suet and mix. Add the 
currants, raisins, spices, sugar, salt. Pour over 



WARMED-OVER DISHES 149 

all the vinegar and cook slowly until lieated 
through. Seal up in jars until ready to use. Keep 
in cool place. When ready to be made into pies, 
1/8 c. chopped nuts may be added to each pie. 

1. Estimate the cost of each quart of mincemeat. 

2. What is your idea as to its food value? 

3. Is it an extravagant pie for a person in ordinary 
circumstances ? 

4. Where is the best cooking suet found? (see Fats). 

5. What cut of meat is most used for mincemeat ? 



CHAPTER XVI 

FATS AND OILS 

Generally we give the name fata to the solids 
and oils to the liquids. However, since the tem- 
perature has such a marked effect upon them, this 
classification will not hold. We also generally 
speak of obtaining fats from animals and oils from 
vegetables, but recently several vegetable oils 
have been manufactured which are solids when 
cold. 

The fats and oils most used are obtained from 
meat, fish, poultry, butter, cream, olives, nuts, 
cocoa bean and cotton seed. 

Olive oil is obtained from the fruit of the olive 
tree. The best oil is obtained from the first press- 
ing of fresh, carefully picked fruit; a poorer 
grade from the second pressing; and after treat- 
ing the pulp with hot water, a third grade used 
for soap making. In some parts of Europe, espe- 
cially Italy, it is commonly employed for frying, 
but in this country it is generally too expensive. 
It is, however, best of all fats for deep frying and 
can be heated to 600 degrees. 

Cotton-seed oil, when of the best quality, is 
excellent for table use. Like olive oil it is good 

150 



FATS AND OILS 151 

for deep frying and can be heated to a higher de- 
gree than lard, suet, butter, etc. We buy it under 
many different names. 

Suet is the adiyjose tissue of cattle, and is found 
around the kidneys, heart and intestines. In the 
living body it is in the liquid condition and only 
after death does it become a solid, as suet, tallow, . 
etc. 

Lard is the adipose tissue of the hog. Leaf 
lard, which is best, is found around the heart, 
kidneys and intestines. 

Butter, the fat of milk, is, under the best con- 
ditions, an ideal fat on account of its flavor and its 
ease of digestion. 

Nuts. The term "nut" usually brings to our 
mind a hard, woody covering, surrounding a meat 
or kernel. The kinds vary so with different lo- 
calities that we are able to study only a few of 
the commonest used by us, as the peanut, English 
walnut, black walnut, and pecan. Their percentage 
of food elements is : 

Water Protein Carl)ohydrates Minerals Fats 

Peanut 8% 30%, 20% 2% 40%, 

Pecan 4%o 12% 12%, 2%o 70%; 

Wahiut4%, 18%o 16%o 2% 60%o 

The percentage of protein is very high, but, as 
with cheese, it is in a concentrated form and 
thorough mastication is necessary to insure ease 



152 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

of digestion. Nuts also contain a small amount of 
tannic acid. 

It is only witliin the past few years that their 
value as a food was recognized. They are most 
valuable when eaten with other foods, as in salads, 
breads, and deserts. 

Digestion of fats. In the mouth, the sali^■a 
merely separates the fats into small globules and 
they pass on into the stomach as such. In the 
stomach they are changed very little, with the ex- 
ception of being split into smaller portions. As 
they enter the small intestines they are split by 
the pancreatic juice into fatty acids and gycerine. 
A small amount is absorbed as such. The bile next 
acts upon the fats, forming an emulsion in which 
the globules are finely divided and rendered cap- 
able of passing through the membranes to pro- 
duce heat and energy. 

The digestion of fats depends mainly upon get- 
ting the globules small enough that they may be 
easily passed through the walls of the intestines. 
Separating the fats into such tiny globules is called 
emulsification. The alkaline pancreatic juice unites 
with the fatty acid of the fats to form a soap, while 
the glycerine is set free. Both the soap and the 
glycerine are more easily absorbed than the 
original fat. 

Fatty foods are valuable to the body because of 
the material thev furnish for heat and energy. 



FATS AND OILS 153 

They act in the same way as starch and sugar, ex- 
cept that fats produce between two and three times 
as much heat as starch. 

Fats "shorten" bread mixtures; that is, make 
them more tender by separating the starch grains 
of the flour. When using a compound 1/3 less 
must be used than when using lard or butter as 
the latter contain a percentage of water while the 
compounds are wholly condensed fat. 

Heat has much to do with the digestil)ility of 
fat, as a strong heat scorches it and decomposition 
sets in which causes it to be irritating to the mucus 
membranes of the digestive organs. 

1*ASTRY 

Why pies are indigestible. The digestion of fat 
is not begun in the mouth as is that of starch. Fat 
undergoes no chemical change in the system until 
it is emulsified and saponified in the small intes- 
tine. In making pastry the starch granules are 
completely enveloped in fat, these cannot be acted 
upon by the saliva, hence the digestion of starch 
in pastry must be postponed until after the fat is 
acted upon. If the pancreatic juice can discharge 
its office, all is well, if this fails, the starch be- 
comes so much waste material. For this reason 
pie is looked upon with fear. Yet, when properly 
made, occasional indulgence may be permitted. 

Pie crust. The underlying principle of good 



154 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

pastry is expansion. We place cold flour and cold 
fat in a bowl placed on crushed ice. The fat is 
cut into the flour until it resembles a meal; then 
ice water is cut into this, until the dough is smooth 
and free from fat or white streaks. Toss this on 
a cold floured board away from the fire, (a piece 
of marble or heavy glass is best) roll 1/16 inch 
thick, lifting and turning with each stroke of the 
rolling pin, fit over the bottom of a pie tin, pierce 
several times to allow the steam to escape, and 
bake in a moderate oven until well done, about 12 
minutes. The air and the ice water wdiicli were 
worked into the cold materials expand immediately 
after being placed in a hot oven; result — a flaky, 
crisp crust. When a baked shell is wanted it is 
better to invert the \rdn and fit the dough over the 
outside. 

Materials: 1/3 as much shortening as flour. 

1/5 as much ice water as flour. 

1/4 tsp. salt to each c. of flour. 
When using butter or lard. Yz as much as flour may be 
used. 

Custard Pie 

One crust pies. Since pie tins differ so widely 
it is difficult to give -the amount of flour required 
for a crust ; but for the average tin, % c. flour will 
make one crust. Do not roll the crust too thin. 

Line pie tin with dough, cutting it around the 
edges larger than the pan. Pinch with the finger 



FATS AND OILS 155 

tips, so that it will stand. Fill with liquid made 
as "firm custard," and bake until the center is 
firm, about 30 minutes. 

Cream Pies 

Bake a pie shell on an inverted pan. Make a 
cream filling as for cream putt's. Fill the shell with 
the cream filling, add meringue to the top and re- 
turn to the oven to brown ; or make, — 

Banana cream pie, by half filling the shell with 
thinly sliced bananas, (with sugar added) and fill- 
ing to the top with the cream and adding mer- 
ingue ; or make, — 

Cocoanut cream pie, by mixing cocoanut with 
the cream and filling the shell. To make meringue, 
beat an es^p:^ white stiff and dry. Add 1 tsp. sugar. 

Two crust pies. After the crust is made, divide 
it into two parts. Roll one, 1/16 inch thick and line 
the pan. Roll the other, making scroll or leaves in 
it — these to serve as an escape for the steam. Fill 
the pie, add such seasonings as are recommended, 
lay the top crust on very loosely, and fasten to the 
bottom crust by pressing with a fork or by pinch- 
ing them together with the thumb and finger. 

APPI;E PIE 

Fill the crust with thin slices of firm, tart fruit. 
Sprinkle over the top from i/o to 1 c. sugar mixed 
with 1 tsp. cinnamon. Dot over it small pieces of 



156 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

butter and from 6 to 8 drops of lemon extract. 
Moisten tlie lower crust, lay on the top crust, press 
together and bake about 30 minutes or until the 
fruit is tender and the crust is brown. 

Any fruit pie as peach or apricot may be made 
by the same directions, or by leaving out the cin- 
namon and lemon and adding other flavors that 
night blend with the fruit. 

BERRY PIES 

Follow general directions for apple pie. The 
great difficulty with making berry pies successfully 
is in keeping the juice from running over the 
edges. They should not be baked in as hot an oven 
as other fruit pies. The crusts must be carefully 
pressed together, and the slashes in the top crust 
must be of sufficient number to allow the steam to 
escape. No extra moisture need be added, but 
from 1 to 2 tbsp. of flour, sifted with the sugar 
should be added to each pie. 

CHEESE STRAWS 

From any pie crust that is left cheese straws 
may be made. Eoll plain pastry 14 ii^ch thick. 
Sprinkle 14 with grated cheese to which has been 
added a few grains of salt and cayenne. Fold, 
press edges firmly together, fold again, pat and 
roll out 14 i^ch thick. Sprinkle with cheese and 
proceed as before. Eepeat twice. Cut in strips 



FATS AND OILS 157 

5 inches long and i/4 ii^^li wide. Bake 8 minutes 
in moderate oven. 

SUET PUDDING 
(Serve 2) 

J4 e. chopped suet ^ tsp. soda 

}4 tsp. cinnamon ^ c. molasses 

34 c. tiour }4. tsp. allspice 

^ c. milk j-i tsp. salt 

% c. chopped raisins 

Mix dry ingredients. Chop suet fine, mix with 
milk and molasses, then with dry ingredients. Add 
fruit last. Grease baking powder cans and fill two- 
thirds full. Steam one hour. Larger amounts 
must be cooked longer. Four times this recipe will 
serve eight people and should steam three hours. 
Serve w^ith hard sauce. 

Dates or figs may be added to this recipe and it 
is then called fig pudding or date pudding. 

HARD SAUCE 

34 ''. butter ] c. pwd. sugar 

1 egg white j4, tsp. nutmeg 

1 tsp. vanilla 

Cream butter and sugar, add white of egg, un- 
beaten, and the vanilla, and beat together thor- 
oughly. Grate nutmeg over the top and set in a 
cool place until ready to serve. One-half c. of 
whipped cream may be added instead of the egg. 

1. "Why should a person with a weak digestion eat 



158 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

very sparingly of this pudding.:' What do we mean by 
"weak digestion." 

POTATO CHIPS 

Wash and pare potatoes. Slice thinly into a 
bowl of ice water. Let stand i/. hour. Pat dry 
between towels, fry in deep fat until golden brown, 
keeping in motion. Drain on brown paper and 
sprinkle with salt. 

FRENCH FRIED POTATOES 

Cut pared potatoes in strips Yg inch thick and 
wide and 3 inches long. Fry in deep fat until 
tender. 



CHAPTER XVII 

BACTERIA— YEAST 

Dirt is matter out of place. It may be animal, 
vegetable, or mineral. 

Dust may be composed of the three classes of 
dirt and is a powder, so fine that it will fly in the 
air. If animal and vegetable dust is left undis- 
turbed where it settles, tiny plants will grow. 
These plants are known as molds, yeasts and bac- 
teria. 

Bacteria are tlie smallest and simplest of known 
living things, of the vegetable family. Each con- 
sists of a single cell, endowed with the character- 
istics of living animals in as much as they take 
food, change it into their own substance and give 
off waste. This waste or excretion 'sours milk and 
renders fish and all fresh foods unfit for use. Such 
foods are said to be spoiled. The brown spots on 
bananas and other fruits are good examples of 
the work of bacteria. 

Molds grow from vegetable dust in the form of 
long threads which, by uniting, form a frame work 
over the substance they are using as a food. They 
grow and multiply rapidly in warm moist places 
and destroy food and clothing. 

Mildew is a form of mold. 

159 



160 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Yeast is the plant that produces fermentation 
or "working" in many liquids, fruits, juices, pre- 
serves, etc. 

From a lesson on bacteria in Physiology prepare to 
answer the following questions : 

1. Why should food eaten raw or unskiuned be thor- 
oughly cleaned? 

2. What sanitary end is attained by cooking food? 

3. Why are oranges or bananas safer than grapes 
when bought from a street vender? 

4. Why should milk receptacles be thoroughly 
scalded or sunned? 

5. What is mildew, and under what conditions in 
the house is it likely to occur? 

YEAST 

In the fall, we dig up our flow^er bulbs, pack 
them in dry soil, and put them in a place — the 
temperature of which is such that they will live, 
but not grow until warm weather comes. Then we 
put them out again, and the warmth and moisture 
and soil causes them to grow. 

The small cake of yeast that we buy is a starchy 
mixture packed full of tiny plant-bulbs, known as 
yeast plants, which, mixed wdth certain material, 
and made warm enough, begin growing, budding 
and reproducing. In growing yeast plants these 
facts must be considered : 

They grow and multiply very fast. 

Note: Read in an A^-ienlture tlie various topics under "Uae- 
teria." 



BACTERIA— YEAST 161 

Tliey grow only when warm and moist. 

They grow best at temperatures from 75 to 80 
degrees. 

They may be forced to grow at a higher tem- 
perature, but a great lieat kills them. 

Cold checks their growth, but does not kill the 
plants. 

Frozen yeasts have been thawed out and made 
to grow. 

When yeast plants are fed upon a sugar with 
moisture they absorb the sugar and give off from 
their cells compounds called carbon dioxide and 
alcohol. 

Fill a glass half full of sweetened fruit juice 
and place in it a small amount of yeast. Place 
the glass in warm water and observe the change 
which will take place in a few minutes. 

In bread making the cells feed upon the sugar 
in the Hour and that which is added in the bread 
making, and, as the carbon dioxide is given off, 
it collects in tiny sacks and makes room for itself 
in the dough. These sacks are the holes we see 
in the slices of bread. If unbaked bread is kept 
at even temperature the gas formation will be 
about the same throughout the dough and the 
sacks will be of a uniform size, giving us an even- 
grained bread ; but we can readily see how a strong 
heat on one side and perhaps a cold draft of air on 
the other side would cause an uneven expansion 



162 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

and a difference in the texture of tlie bread. 

Examine living yeast under the microscope. 
Yeast plants are so small that they cannot be seen 
by the naked eye, yet they are in the atmosphere, 
blown everywhere by the winds. These are known 
as wdld yeasts, but may be captured very easily 
if a glass of fruit juice be placed where the w^arm 
air can get to it. Ordinarily we would say ''the 
juice has soured." 

Yeast plants are very plentiful around hop 
fields. A pail of sweetened water left in a hop field 
will, in a short time, be full of tiny bubbles or 
foam. Cornmeal, stirred into this water until it 
forms a stiff dough, may be rolled to a thickness of 
% inch, cut in squares, dried, and used as yeast 
cakes. 

Another form of yeast is made by mixing a very 
fine flour (rice) in the hop water, making this into 
cakes, and wrapping these in tinfoil while they are 
still moist. This is called compressed yeast. 

Bread made from the dry yeast, which requires 
a longer time for growing, is called Long Process 
Bread. This usually requires about 18 hours to 
make and bake. 

Well made bread should have: 

An evenly browned crust without breaks at the 
sides or ends. 

Even texture inside. 

A "nuttv" flavor. 



BACTERIA— YEAST 163 

Bread bakes in an uneven shape when the heat 
of the oven is irregular, and it has an irregular 
grain when the temperature during the rising- 
period is uneven. 

WHITE BREAD 
(1 loaf) 

1 cake compressed yeast 1 tbsp. fat 

2 e. warm water IJ^ tsp. salt 
flour to make stiff dough 1 tbsp. sugar 

(about 6 cups) 

Dissolve the sugar and fat in the warm water. 
Add the yeast and stir until dissolved. Add 
enough of the flour to make a batter and beat for 
10 minutes. Add the salt and the rest of the flour 
and knead until the dough is elastic and will not 
stick to the hands. The exact amount of flour can 
not be given since flours differ as to the amount of 
moisture they will absorb. Place in a well greased 
bowl, in a warm place, where the temperature is 
even and let rise 2 hours. The top of the dough 
should be lightly oiled. Mold into a loaf, grease 
on top, and when the size has doubled, bake 60 
minutes in a moderate oven. 

WHOLE WHEAT BREAD 
(1 loaf) 

1 cake compressed yeast 1 tbsp. fat 

1 c. warm water 2 tbsp. brown sugar 

}i tsp. salt y2 c. warm milk 



164 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Soak yeast in warm milk until tliorouglily dis- 
solved. Add sugar and fat to the water and, 
when dissolved, add to the milk and yeast. Beat 
in the flour gradually, with the salt added. Knead 
and bake as white bread, only lower the tempera- 
ture of the oven when baking. 

GERMAN COFFEE BREAD 
(1 loaf I 

1 c. compressed yeast 1 egg 

;?4 c. warm milk J,^ e. sugar 

l->4 c. flour 2 tbsp. fat 

^ c. raisins Y^ tsp. salt 

Dissolve the yeast and 1 tbsp. of the sugar in 
the warm milk and add '-Vx c. flour. Beat well and 
set in a warm place to grow until light and spongy 
(about 1 hour). Cream the fat and the rest of the 
sugar, add the ^^^^ salt and raisins (well floured) 
to the sponge. Add flour until you have a cake 
batter and beat for 5 minutes. Turn into a bread 
Ijan and let rise until twice its size, then bake in 
a slow oven until the center is firm (about 25 
minutes). 

This bread is especially a food for breakfast. 

LIGHT ROELS 

Follow the recipe for white bread until time to 
mold into loaf form. Then make into small balls 
the size of a walnut, greasing each one before 



BACTERIA— YEAST 165 

placing it in a well-oiled pan. Crowd tliem very 
closely together and when twice their size bake in 
a quick oven for 20 minutes. 

PARKER HOUSE ROLLS 

Follow recipe for light rolls up to the time for 
molding into loaves, then roll the dough into a 
sheet 1/4 inch thick and cut in circles about 2 
inches across. With the handle of a knife, press 
through the center until it forms a hinge, butter 
one side and fold the one over the other. Place 
in a pan and, when twice their size, bake. 

NUT BREAD 
(1 loaf) 

2 c. flour 1 tsp. salt 

4 tsp. B. P. y^ e. sugar 

2 eggs 1 e. chopped nuts 

Sift the dry ingredients. Add the eggs and the 
milk until it is a stiff drop batter. Add the nuts 
and pour into a greased pan. Let rise 20 minutes 
in a warm place. Bake in a moderate oven 40 
minutes. 

BROWN BREAD 
(1 11). coffee can full) 

1 e. yellow meal ^ c. molasses 

1 e. whole wheat flour ^ tsp. soda 

1 e. flour 1 tsp. salt 

4 tsp. B. P. milk 



166 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Mix dry ingredients, add molasses and milk 
until it is a drop batter. Bake in tins which are 
2/3 full in a pan of boiling water for three hours 
or in a slow oven for ly^ hours. 

TEA BISCUITS 
(6 biscuits) 

1 c. flour 2 tsp. B. P. 

^4 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. fat 

1 egg milk to make soft dough 

Sift dry ingredients, chop in fat, drop in egg 
whole, add the milk and mix thoroughly until it 
is a soft dough. Roll i/o inch thick, cut in circles 
and bake in a moderate oven until brown and well 
done. These may also be used for short cakes. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

CAKES 

Cakes are of two classes, those made with butter 
as the various layer, pound, or loaf cakes, and 
those made without butter as sunshine, sponge, 
and angel food. 

Cakes are a form of batter. For fruit or nut 
cakes the batter must be made stitf enough so that 
the nuts or fruits will not sink to the bottom. 
Plain cakes may be a pour batter, but generally 
we designate them as a "tear batter," that is, 
the batter seems to tear away from the edge of 
the vessel instead of drop. 

A thin batter cake may be baked in a quicker 
oven than a thick batter cake. In general a cake 
should be proportioned : 

% to y^ as much fat as sugar. 

3 times as much flour as sugar. 

1 whole egg or 2 whites for each cup of flour. 

Though material and conditions differ so widely 
that no definite rule in proportion can be given. 

If the flour is sifted several times it will hold 
the air better. It should be sifted once, measured, 

167 



168 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

then sifted several times. The sugar should be 
fine. It is best to use only the sugar that will fall 
easily through the sifter, — using the coarse in 
foods where it must be dissolved. On account of 
expense, the cotton seed oil compounds are used 
more generally than butter. "When using them 
add 1/4 tsp. salt for each cup and use 1/3 less 
than the recipe calls for if butter is designated. 
Since these compounds are a concentrated oil, the 
same amount as compared with butter would 
make the batter too rich. 

To cream butter or other fats. Beat the material 
with a wooden spoon until light and creamy. The 
texture and appearance will have changed de- 
cidedly when air is beaten into it. 

Pans may he: 

1. Greased. 

2. Greased and sprinkled with flour. (All flour that 
does not adhere should be shaken out.) 

3. Lined with oiled paper (for very old pans). 

4. Vsed dry (for all cakes without butter). 
Steps in- cake maling: 

1. Arrange all utensils for convenience. 

2. Measure and collect all materials. Sift flour and 
B. P. several times. 

3. Prepare the pans. 

4. Regulate the heat of the oven, unless the cake is 
to be placed in a cold oven. 

5. Combine and bake. 

6. Cool and ice. 



CAKES 169 

Methods of coHibiniiig: 
First, 

1. Cream fat. 

2. Add sugar, cream again. 

3. Add eggs whole (yolk and white, or either sep- 
arated) and beat the mixture thoroughly. 

4. Add flavoring. 

5. Add flour and milk and mix lightly until the de- 
sired consistency is reached. Fruit or nuts should be 
floured and folded into the batter the last thing. 

After the flour and baking powder is added the 
batter must be stirred as little as possible as the 
gas, which forms as soon as baking powder and 
moisture is combined, will escape. 

Second, 

1. Cream fat and sugar (and o^g yolks if used). 

2. Add flour, milk and flavoring. 

3. Fold in beaten egg white. 

Forms of baking : 

Layer 

Loaf 

Roll 

Individual 

Sheet 

The sheet cake is decidedly the popular form 
for cakes at the present time. When baked they 
should be about 2 inches thick, the icing adding 
1/4 to 1/^ inch more. 



170 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Temperature for baking. Many cake bakers 
who use gas ovens, tliat heat very rapidly, place 
the cake in the oven, light the fire, and after 10 
or 15 minutes, turn off all of the heat. This is a 
very successful way if the housekeeper knows her 
oven thoroughly, but it is not recommended for 
general use. Generally the most successful way 
is to have the oven at a moderate temperature 
(see Degrees of Heat in Cooking) and continued 
at that degree until the cake is baked. 

It is usually considered that "it is the baking 
and not the making" that effects the results of 
cake making. 

Time for baking: 

Layer or sheet from 20 to 30 niiiuitcs (depending upon 
the thickness). 

Loaf from 40 to 60 minutes (depending upon in- 
gredients and thickness). 

Tests for telling when a cake is done : 

1. When it shrinks from the sides of the pan. 

2. When touched in the center it springs back. 

3. When hissing ceases. 

Causes for falling: 

1. Too much fat. 

2. Jarring. 

3. Draught of cold air. 

4. Too much sugar. 

5. Not enough leavening. 



CAKES 171 

Causes for cracking: 

1. Too hot oven. 

2. Uneven heat. 

3. Too much tlour. 

PLAIN CAKE 

Yz c. tlour 8 drops vanilla 

1 tbsp. fat y^ tsp. salt 

1 tsp. B. P. y2 egg (yolk and white 

3 tbsp. sugar mixed) 
milk to make tear batter 

]\[ake by combination method No. 1. 

Six times this recipe will make a loaf or sheet cake. 

WHITE CAKE 

\y2 tbsp. fat 10 tbsp. tlour 
4 tbsp. sugar 1 tsp. B. P. 

1 egg white 8 drops vanilla 

y% tsp. salt milk to make tear batter 

Make by combination No. 1. From four to six times 
this amount will make a large cake. 

CHOCOLATE CAKE 

1 tbsp. fat. 2 tbsp. shaved chocolate 

y^ tsp. salt 1 tsp. B. P. 

4 tbsp. sugar 1 egg yolk 

3/2 c. tlour 8 drops vanilla 

milk to make heavy batter 

Melt cliocolate over hot water. Cream fat, 
sugar and ^g% yolk. Add melted chocolate (not 
hot) and flavoring, then the dry ingredients and 



172 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

milk. The amount of chocolate a cake contains is 
a matter of taste. More or less may be used, as 
desired. For a large cake, use 4 to 6 times these 
amounts. 

SPICE CAKE 

1 tbsp. fat 1 tsp. B. P. 

^ tsp. ground cloves y^ tsp. salt 

4 tbsp. sugar 2 tbsp. shaved <'hoco]ate 

1 egg yolk 2 tbsp. hot mashed po- 

ys tsp. cinnamon tatoes 

milk to moisten 1/16 tsp. nutmeg 
yi c. flour 

Melt chocolate and mix thoroughly with the po- 
tatoes. Keep these in a warm place until used. 
Sift dry ingredients together. Cream fat, sugar 
and egg yolk. Add potatoes with the chocolate 
to the dry ingredients, and milk to make tear bat- 
ter. Bake into sheet or loaf form. Caramel or 
chocolate icing should be used. 

Angel Food Cake 

As eggs ditfer so materially in size, for this 
cake the whites should be designated by measure 
instead of number. From 11 to 13 whites are 
usually required to fill a cup. One c. each, egg 
white, flour and sugar, with 1 tsp. cream of tartar, 
flavoring and % tsp. salt make the ordinary loaf 
cake. Small amounts cannot be made so success- 
fully. The eggs must be fresh, so they will hold 



CAKES 173 

the air. The sugar must be fine and the flour, 
a pastry flour. 

Beat the egg whites stiff and dry. When pai'ti- 
ally beaten, sift over the cream of tartar. Acid 
has a hardening effect upon albumen and thus 
helps the beaten whites to hold the air. Sift the 
sugar and the flour separately three times, then 
together once. Fold this into the beaten eggs, 
very gently from the side, adding the flavoring 
with the salt. Turn into a dry pan and bake in a 
moderate oven. When done invert the pan and 
cool. If the pan is smooth and dry, the cake will 
come out of its own accord. 

SUNSHINE CAKE 

^ e. yolks 1 e. sugar 

3/2 ('. whites 1 ts}). cream of tartar 

1 e. flour 1 tsp. lemon extract 

Beat egg yolks until thick. Add sugar and i/g 
tsp. salt. Fold in beaten whites with cream of 
tartar and flavoring. Fold in flour. This may be 
baked as a butter cake. 

SPONGE CAKE 

^S lemon (grated rind and yi c. flour 
juice) ] egg 

34 c. sugar 

Add lemon rind and juice to the sugar and mix 
well. Separate the egg. Beat the yolk light, add 



174 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

the sugar gradually and beat thoroughly. Beat 
the white of the egg stiff, fold it lightly into the 
batter, then sift in the flour a little at a time, mix- 
ing lightly. Bake until the center is firm and it 
shrinks from the pan. A sponge cake will shrink 
when removed from the oven and will have a 
sugary crust on top. 

Cake Icings 

Frosting — Egg white beaten to the frothy stage 
may have a small amount of sugar added. 

Meringue — Egg white beaten stiff, with sugar 
added. 

Icing — Cooked sugar and water syrup beaten 
into stiffly beaten egg white. 

Uncooked icings are made by blending pow- 
dered sugar with thick cream until it forms a 
paste. This is often used on angel food cakes. 

Frostings or meringues are very seldom used 
for cakes. Icings fail unless the sugar is in the 
right proportion to egg white and is cooked to the 
required degree. 

When icing is so thin that it will run off the 
cake, it should be placed in a vessel over hot 
water and cooked until it becomes grainy around 
the edge. There is too much moisture in it, either 
from the egg or the syrup, and reheating will 
evaporate H. 

If the icing is too hard to spread, place it in a 



CAKES 175 

vessel over hot water, add a few drops of cold 
water and when melted it can be spread. 

WHITE ICING 

iy2 e. sugar Y^ tsp. cream of tartar 

10 drops vanilla ^ c. water 

1 egg white 
Read "Fondant Making" before making this icing. 

Cook sugar and water with cream of tartar 
until it spins a thread about 6 inches long. Stream 
into the beaten Qgg white and beat until it feels 
grainy around the edges. Spread with a silver 
knife on a cold cake. Various nuts, fruits and 
flavorings may be added to this icing. 

CARAMEL ICING 

lyi Q. brown sugar 2 whites (beaten stiff and 

y^ c. water dry) 

3/2 e. granulated sugar 

Cook until it spins a thread 6 inches long. Pour 
slowly over the whites, beating meanwhile. Set 
over hot water and beat it as it cooks, until it 
will hold its shape and is slightly granular around 
the edge. One-fourth c. nuts may be added if 
desired. This will not run or stick and will stay 
soft for several days. 

CHOCOLATE ICING 

1 c. sugar 2 tbsp. shaved chocolate 

1 tbsp. butter 1 c. water 

1 tsp. vanilla or ^ c. nuts 



176 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Cook, add flavoring or nuts, and beat until it 
begins to crystallize. Spread on cake. 

The same proportions of brown sugar, butter 
and water may be cooked tlie same way. 

L Of what food value are cakes? 

2. Are cakes a balanced food? 

3. For whom are they indigestible? 

4. How may we make them so they will be more 
easily digested? 



CHAPTER XIX 

SOUPS AND SALADS 

Soups 

Soups are liquids which contain the flavorings 
and extracts of meat and vegetables. Their value 
to the body lies chiefly in their stimulating effect 
upon the digestive fluids. The food value, even 
in the strong soupj, is so low that it is a mistake 
to depend upon them for buikling material. How- 
ever, in some thick soups which contain macaroni, 
peas, beans, etc., a small amount of nourishment 
is obtained. Clear soups contain about 98% 
water, %% mineral, i/2% protein, 1% fats. Thick 
soups contain only about 909^ water, 8% carbo- 
hydrates and fat, and li/^% protein and i/^'v 
mineral. 

Tu cook foods and especially meats for- soup, 
they should be placed in cold water and the tem- 
perature raised very slowly. This gradually 
draws out the extracts and albumens: AVlien 
meats are placed in water and it boils very soon 
afterwards, a brown scum gathers on the top. 
This is the albumen which was hardened by the 

strong heat and since it cannot be dissolved again 

177 



178 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

it may as well be skimmed off, but in so doing the 
most nutritious part of the soup is lost. 

We serve soups at the beginning of our lunch- 
eons and dinners, the heavy soups at luncheons, 
as usually the other courses will be light, but at 
dinner, when heavy meats and vegetables and 
pastries are to follow, the clear soups are served. 
Cheese straws, and crisp wafers when served 
wdth soup, add to the food value. 

Stock is the clear extract made from cooking 
lean meat, bone and fat. A careful housekeeper 
saves the meat scraps, bones from roasts, etc., and 
makes the stock for her soups without additional 
expense. 

Soups are divided into two classes, — soups 
with stock and soups without stock. Under the 
first we include: 

1. Bouillon, made from lean meats or vegetables 
delicately seasoned and cleared. 

2. Consomme, usually made from two or three kinds 
of meats highly seasoned with spices and herbs, and 
cleared. 

T jider the second we include : 

1. Cream soup, made of vegetables or fish, white 
sauce and seasoning. A cream soup may or may not be 
tliick. 

2. Puree, made from vegetables or fish which have 
been cooked until they are tender enough to be forced 
through a sieve and retained in the soup. Always tliick. 



SOUPS AND SALADS 179 

3. Bisques, made as Puree from fish or meat. Very 
thick. 

CLEAR CONSOMME 
(Serve 6) 

1 beef knuckle bones from chicken or 

1 ham bone (small) turkey 

4 (|ts. water 

Simmer very gently for three hours. When 
ready to serve the water should have evaporated 
until only 1 qt. is left. Season with salt, ground 
cloves, and cayenne to suit the taste. Strain until 
clear and serve hot in tea or bouillon cups. 

TOMATO BOUILLON 

^ e. tomatoes 3^ tsp. diced onion 

2 cloves ^ e. water 

}i tsp. sugar small piece bay leaf 

Simmer all together until it is reduced to the . 
original amount of tomatoes. Strain, add salt, 
pepper, cayenne and reheat. Serve in cups. 

VEGETABLE SOUP 

1 beef shank 1 e. peas 

1 c. string beans snapped 1 c. diced turnips 

1 c. chopped cabbage 1 e. diced carrots 

2 tbsp. diced onion 1 c. tomatoes 

Simmer shank for 1 hr. in 3 qts. water. Add 
beans and carrots, and simmer ^2 hr. Add the 
other vegetables and simmer i/> hr. longer. Sea- 
son with salt, pepper and cayenne to taste. Stir 
each time before filling the dishes, so that por- 



180 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

tions of the vegetables may be served Avitli each 
dish. 

CREAM OF CORN SOUP 

^ e. com ^ c, milk 

1 tsp. flour 1 tsp. butter 

Use canned or stewed corn. Cover with water. 
Cook until soft, mash through a sieve, add enough 
cold water to bring it up to the first measure. 
Make cream sauce of butter, flour and milk. Add 
corn pulp, salt and sugar to taste. Serve hot. 

POTATO SOUP 

(Serve 2) 

y2 c. diced raw potatoes y^ tsp. celery seed 
1 tsp. flour Yi tbsp. chopped onion 

1 tsp. butter 1 c. milk 

Cook potato and onion together until soft. 
Strain. Make cream sauce, add celery seed, salt 
and pepper. When hot, pour over the potato 
pulp. Serve. 

CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP 
(Serve 2) 

1 c. tomatoes 2 cloves 

1 tsp. onion 1 c. water 

Cook slowly until the water has evaporated and 
1 c. of tomato juice remains. Strain. Make % 
c. white sauce "1 to 1." Have both the tomato 
juice and the white sauce hot and just before mix- 



SOTTS AND SALADS 181 

iiig them add 1/16 tsp. soda to tlie tomatoes to 
neutralize the acid. When thoroughly mixed, if 
there are any lumps, strain, and pour into a 
heated soup plate and serve. 

BEAN PUREE 
( Servo 2 i 

1 0. soup beans, which have been cooked until soft, 
about 6 hours. 

1 c. broth in which beans were cooked and in which 
a ham lione was simmered. 

Mash beans through a sieve and mix thoroughly 
with the broth. Season with paprika and cayenne 
to taste. A small piece of onion may be simmered 
with the broth, to impart flavor. 

SALMON BISQUE 

(Serve 2) 

Yz e. salmon ^ tsp. lemon .iuiee, dash 

1 c. water nutmeg 

y% tsp. salt 

Simmer salmon, water, lemon juice and salt, 
until water has evaporated. Press through a 
sieve, and mix thoroughly with 1 c. white sauce 
"3 to 1." Reheat, strain into a hot soup dish, 
sprinkle nutmeg over the top and serve. A tsp. 
of whipped cream may be added to each dish. 

Salads 
Salads are a combination of the green vege- 



182 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

tables, with fruits, meats or otlier vegetables and 
a French or mayonnaise dressing. 

They are given the place on our menus, first 
after the meat or heavy course, because they con- 
tain the food stuffs which call forth digestive 
fluids and therefore aid in the digestion of the 
heavy course. It is now considered very neces- 
sary to give the salad a place in every heavy din- 
ner and when well made and with the right com- 
binations it has a high food value. 

Different dressings are made for salads, tastes 
varying as to the best. 

French dressing. 1 c. oil (olive or salad), 5 
tbsp. acid (lemon juice or vinegar), ^^ tsp. salt, 
dash cayenne and i/4 tsp. paprika. Mix all to- 
gether and beat thoroughly before turning over 
the salad. One tbsp. of sugar may be added for a 
fresh tomato salad or for any salad with which 
the taste of sugar blends. 

Mayonnaise. 1 egg yolk, blended with Yz tsp. 
salt, 1/4 tsp. paprika, dash cayenne, 2 to 4 tbsp. 
vinegar. Beat into this 2 c. oil. This should make 
a very hea^'y dressing for vegetables and fruit. 
For meat, mustard may be added. Many times, 
without any apparent reason, this dressing will 
fail to thicken. If, after streaming in a small 
amount of oil, it is thin, do not attempt it farther 
with that egg. Use another yolk and when that 
thickens, the first egg and oil may be added with- 



SOUPS AND SALADS 183 

out fear of failure. These cautions may insure 
success: be sure of a fresh egg and keep the oil 
cold. The albumen in an old egg will not have 
sufficient strength to hold the oil in the form of 
an emulsion. 

Roquefort cheese salad dressing. 1/4 lb. Roque- 
fort cheese blended with French dressing until it 
forms a smooth paste. This is especially fine for 
vegetable salads, as tomato, asparagus, lettuce, 
etc. This amount will serve ten people. 

Cooked salad dressing. One c. weak vinegar 
water heated. Blend 1 egg yolk, 1 tbsp. flour, 2 
tbsp. sugar, 14 tsp. salt, speck cayenne, i/4 tsp. 
paprika and a small amount of water, enough 
to form a paste. Stream slowly into the hot 
vinegar and cook over water for 8 minutes. Re- 
move and beat into it 1 tbsp. oil or 1 tbsp. melted 
butter. When cold, thin any amount of it with 
whipped cream. Mustard may be added but in 
small amounts, as its use is not recommended in 
any diet. 

To serve a salad, of a combination that will be 
in harmony with the other courses, is one of the 
marks of good training on the part of hostess or 
housekeeper. 

A meat salad should only be served at 
luncheons or with other refreshments to take the 
place of a meat course, never at a dinner where 
there has been a heavy meat course. 



184 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Fruit salads are most appreciated at tlie dinner 
or luncheon, when the first course has been a 
vegetable soup, or on a refreshment plate where 
meat and vegetables are served. 

Vegetable salads may be served when the first 
course has been a fruit or when the desert is to 
be a fruit. If the dinner course contains dry 
vegetables, and a vegetable salad is to follow, it 
must be of the. fresh variety. 

There are no limits to the possibilities of salads 
as to combination and manner of serving, but 
the points to remember in making salads suc- 
cessfully are: 

The salad must blend with the other courses. 

The salad must not repeat the other courses. 

The salad must be dainty and attractive in ar- 
rangement. 

The dressing must be well made, well seasoned, 
and used with discretion. 

Wafers, cheese straws, butter crisps or cheese 
crisps may be served with a salad. 

POTATO SALAD 
( Sei-vi' (i ) 

2 c. cold diced potatoes 1 tsp. diced carrots 

2 tsp. capers 1 c chopped celery or 

1 tbsp. diced onion 1 tsp. celery seed 

Sweet peppers and hard-cooked eggs may be added 

Mix thoroughly with any dressing. Pile loosely 



SOUPS AND SALADS 185 

on crisp lettuce leaf. One tbsp. diced beets may 
be added to the top or grated cheese. 

TOMATO SALAD 

Select smooth ripe tomato. Peel. Cut off top, 
partially hollow and fill with diced cucumbers. 
Place on lettuce leaf and cover with French dress- 
ing or Roquefort cheese dressing. 

ASPARAGl'S SALAD 

Arrange 6 tender asparagus tips through a ring 
of green pepper, on a crisp lettuce leaf, and pour 
the dressing over them. 

CABBAGE SALAD 

2 c. shredded cabbage 1 tbsp. celery seed 

1 sweet red pepper J4 c. chopped parsley 

Mix well with dressing. 

Either dressing may be used with the following 
combinations : 

Cauliflower and beets. 

Cauliflower and pimentoes. 

Shredded lettuce, sliced tomatoes, green pep- 
pers cut into bits. 

GELATINE SALAD 

Yz box gelatine ^ c. sugar 

Yz c. cold water juice 1 lemon 

Yt. c. mild vinegar 1 tsp. salt 

1 pt. boiling water 2 pimentoes 

1 c. finely shredded cab- 2 c. celery (cut in small 
bage pieces) 



186 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Soak the gelatine in cold water 5 minutes, add 
boiling water, vinegar, lemon juice, sugar and salt. 
Strain, and when beginning to set, add remaining 
ingredients. 

Turn into small molds and chill. Serve on let- 
tuce leaf with mayonnaise dressing. This is a 
delicious accompaniment to cold chicken or veal. 

There are many varieties of the gelatine salads 
and, since they may be made hours before they 
are to be served, they are very popular. 

Fruit S.vlads 

WxlLDORF SALAD 
(Serve 6) 

2 e. chopped apples 12 maraschino cherries 

Yz c. chopped celery (cut fine) 

i/z c. chopped nuts 

Mix these thoroughly in 1 c. cooked salad dress- 
ing and serve on lettuce leaf. The cherries may 
be halved and arranged on the top or mixed with 
the salad. 

PINEAPPLE SALAD 

Arrange 1 slice of pineapple on a lettuce leaf. 
Pile on center 1/2 banana, cut in cubes. Pour over 
this thick mayonnaise dressing. Sprinkle chopped 
nuts on the top. 

The exact proportion of different fruits used 



SOUPS AND SALADS 187 

in the making of salads is not an important point 
so long as the blending flavors are pleasing. 

The following suggested combinations may be 
used in any proportion with dressing and served 
on lettuce leaf: 

White grapes (seeded), apples, nuts, celery. 

One-half pear, pineapple, pimento. 

Grape fruit, bananas, nuts. 

Peaches, oranges, marshmallows in orange 
cups. 

MEAT SALADS 



Chicken and fish are used most for meat salads, 
ayom 
salads. 



Mayonnaise dressing blends best with these 



CHICKEN SALAD 
(Serve 8-10) 

2 e. cold cubed chicken ^ c. chopped celery 
Yz e. seeded white grapes Yz c. chopped nuts 

Use mayonnaise dressing. Serve on lettuce leaf 
with salted wafers. 

The following proportions will serve six. Use 
any of the dressings. 

1. Oue-half c. shrimp, % c. shredded cabbage, 1 tbsp. 
diced onion. 2 hard egg whites diced. 

2. One-half c. salmon, Yx c. diced cold potatoes, Y^ c. 
celery, 1 tbsp. lemon juice. 

3. One-half c. stutfed olives, Ya ^- grated cheese, ^ 
c. nuts. 



188 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

4. One c. cottage cheese, 1 green pepper, cnt fine, one 
pimento, yi c. nuts. 

5. One-half e. peas, 3^ c. salted peanuts, ^ c. diced 
cucumber in half tomatoes. 

EGG SALAD 

One cold hard-cooked Qgg cut in halves, cross- 
wise. Arrange on lettuce leaf with mayonnaise 
and garnish with ribbons of green or red peppers. 



CHAPTEPv XX 

FKUIT 

The walls of the cells of vegetable or fruit 
which hold the juices is known as cellulose. In 
young vegetables or fruits it is soft, but in older 
growths it is generally woody and hard to digest. 
Make a test for cellulose in apples, oranges, or 
bananas. (See experiment under Potatoes.) 

In a broad sense, all seed-vessels are fruits. 
This would include nuts, grains, squash, etc., so 
we commonly class as fruits those seed vessels 
served with sugar or as a dessert. When tomatoes 
were eaten with sugar and cream they were called 
a fruit, ''love-apples." 

Most fruits contain from 80 to 90 per cent water 
and the remaining per cent cellulose, acid, mineral 
and sugar, which, in an unripe state, is starch. 
They furnish a small amount of nutriment, con- 
vey water to the system, and act as both a tonic 
and an aid to digestion. 

Digestibility of fruit in the stomach and intes- 
tines depends largely upon its degree of ripeness. 
The excess of acids present in unripe fruit causes 
it to be irritating to the intestines, and is fre- 
quently the cause of acute digestive disturbances. 

180 



190 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Cooking renders fruits more digestible by soft- 
ening their cellulose and it also, as we liave seen 
in the making of jelly, converts the gum into a 
gelatinous form. 

Pineapple juice contains a remarkably active 
digestive principle similar to pepsin. So power- 
ful is its action upon proteins that it will digest 
one thousand times its weight in a few hours. 

Bananas contain a large amount of starch, as 
much as the potatoes, therefore they should not 
be eaten in an unripe state. Cooking, of course, 
develops the food value and, for some persons, the 
flavor. 

Figs and prunes have an effect upon an inactive 
liver, and for that reason are considered most ex- 
cellent laxatives. They are also highly nutritive, 
as the pulp contains 60 per cent of sugar, and 6 
per cent of protein. 

Apples may be said to be to other fruits what 
potatoes are to other vegetables. They exert a 
great influence upon the liver and kidneys, and 
those containing a great amount of juice, are a 
laxative. "Cooking" apples are those that con- 
tain a high percentage of acid and pectin. '* Eat- 
ing" apples have more sugar and less acid and 
pectin. 

Pears have less acid and cellulose than apples. 
They are best eaten raw, but may be preserved in 
syrup or dried. 



FRUIT 191 

Quince resemble pears but liave much firmer 
flesh. The seeds are very rich in mucilaginous 
substances, which, when cooked with the fruit for 
jelly making, render it the easiest jelly of all to 
make. 

Oranges, lemons and limes have an abundance 
of citric acid and are especially valuable for their 
refreshing properties and power of allaying 
thirst. Oranges when cooked, are used mostly for 
marmalades. The rind of these fruits is dried, 
candied, and used extensively by confectioners. 
The white portion underneath the skin is almost 
entirely cellulose and should never be eaten. 

Grapes exceed all other fruits (except dates) in 
the amount of sugar. The minerals found in 
grapes are lime, potash, and magnesia. 

Raisins are dried grapes and are prepared in 
two ways. The finest are dried on the growing 
plant by partially cutting the twig. Others are 
gathered, dried in the sun, dipped in a solution of 
soda, olive oil and salt, then allowed to dry again 
for several days. 

Currants are a small seedless grape first found 
in Greece, but now grown extensively in our own 
country. 

Strawberries are richer than most fruits in 
potash and lime salts, and especially soda salt. 

Prunes have a large amount of digestible cellu- 
lose and sugar. They are considered to be a mild 



192 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

laxative. For many years prunes were very cheap 
and so poorly cooked that they were entirely ban- 
ished from the average memi, but now they are 
slowly coming into favor owing to the modern 
ways of evaporating and the numerous ways in 
which they may be served attractively. 

BANANA PIE 

Line pie tin with short pie crust and bake. Fill 
crust with thinly sliced bananas and cover with 
meringue made of 

2 eggs (whites) ^ c. sugar 

Put whites of eggs and sugar in bowl and beat 
until mixture will stay in shape. Pile on the pie 
in irregular form and bake in slow oven 15 min- 
utes. 

BAKED APPLES — CREOLE STYLE 

Pare and core sound tart apples. Steam until 
almost tender, remove to buttered pan, fill cavities 
with cocoanut, stick apples full of blanched al- 
monds, baste with syrup made with sugar, water 
and lemon juice. Bake tender. Serve with 
whipped cream or jelly. 

APPLE SAUCE 

(Serve 8) 

Pare and cut in eighths, 6 tart apples. Cover 
with warm water and steam until they can be 



FRUIT 193 

easily pierced. Add y^ c. sugar, i/^ tsp. lemon 
extract, i^ tsp. cinnamon. When sugar has dis- 
solved, serve. 

1. Why not cook in boiling water? 

2. Why add the sugar last ? 

BAKED APPLES 

Wash each apple and remove the core. Fill hol- 
low place, with 1 tsp. sugar blended with i/o tsp. 
butter and % tsp. cinnamon. Pour over 2 tbsp. 
warm water and bake in a slow oven until soft. 
Serve with cream and sugar. 

PRUNE SAUCE 

Buy the best evaporated prunes. Wash care- 
fully, place in a vessel and cover with warm water 
and steam 2 hours. A few minutes before remov- 
ing from the fire add sugar to taste. 

PRUNE WHIP 

(Serve 6) 

Press through a sieve cooked prunes to meas- 
ure 2 c. Add to the pulp, sugar to taste and Yo 
c. flour. Fold into this the stiffly beaten whites of 
2 eggs and bake in a very slow oven 20 minutes. 
The pan in which this is baked should be only 
one-half full when placed in the oven. 

FRUIT DUMPLINGS 

Make soft dough, as biscuit dough, using twice 



194 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

the amount of shortening, Eoll Vs ii^- thick. Cut 
in three-inch squares, pile fruit in center, add 
sugar and spices to taste; gather up points and 
sides and press together. Turn the dough ball 
over and place in a buttered pan. Bake in a hot 
oven 20 minutes, if the fruit is cooked, or if raw, 
until fruit is sufficiently done. Just before remov- 
ing from the oven glaze with beaten egg and sugar. 
Serve with a sauce made of : 

^ c. butter ^ e. water 

1 c. brown sugar 3^ tsp. lemon extract 

j4 tsp. cinnamon or nutmeg 

Heat in double boiler until sugar and butter 
have made a syrup. 

Sliced apples, peaches, apricots or berries may 
be used in these dumplings. 

When fresh berries are used, the dough may be 
rolled thin, the berries spread over it, sugared and 
floured and all rolled as a ''jelly roll" and baked. 
Slices 1/2 in. thick are cut from the end and served. 

Fresh fruit should be served as nearly as pos- 
sible in its natural state. The following sugges- 
tions may be helpful : 

Strmvberries — washed thoroughly with the 
stems on, and served with the powxlered sugar. 

Oranges — in halves with the pulp cut free from 
the skin. 

Grape-fruit — in halves, with each section cut 



FRUIT 195 

free from the skin and tlie tough white partitions 
of each section removed. These may be served 
with sugar or natural. 

Grapes — in bunches, thoroughly washed. 

Canteloupe — in halves, with seeds removed. 

Watermelon — only the heart, cut in small pieces, 
pieces. 

All fruits are better if served very cold. 



CHAPTER XXI 

SHERBETS AND ICE CREAMS 

The food value of these dishes depends upon 
their composition. Ice cream made from pure 
cream, sugar and flavorings, has a high food value, 
and the sherbets and ices made from the juices of 
fresh fruits rank high for their ability to stimu- 
late and refresh. The fact that ice cold drinks 
and foods delay digestion is much against this 
otherwise very delightful way of supplying the 
body with nutriment and liquid. 

Ices and sherbets are either a composition of 
fruit juice, sugar and water frozen, or crushed 
fruit added with the juice. Beaten egg white, 
gelatine and cream may be added to sherbets. 

Ice creams are a composition of milk, sugar and 
flavoring, frozen, or a thin custard frozen. The 
first class of cream known as Philadelphia ice 
cream is the simplest form of frozen cream. 
Those made from a custard are known as Neapol- 
itan ice creams and to them may be added the 
various flavorings, fruits, nuts, etc. Inferior 
creams of the last class are often made by using 
a large amount of starch in place of the egg in 
the custard. 

To freeze. The can, paddle and lid should be 

196 



SHERBP]TS AND ICE CREAMS 197 

thoroughly scalded before placing it in the wooden 
bucket. Fasten the freezer and everything in 
place, as if ready to freeze. Fill the space be- 
tween the can and the bucket with ice and rock 
salt; 1 part salt to 3 parts ice — the ice pounded 
fine. Turn the freezer slowly while the packing is 
being done. When nearly to the top, remove the 
crank and lid and pour in the liquid. Do not have 
the can more than two-thirds full, as the liquid 
expands as it freezes. Replace the lid and crank, 
fill to the top with ice and salt and turn slowly a 
few minutes to evenly distribute the freezing 
through the liquid. As the liquid freezes the 
crank may be turned very fast. 

Why we use salt. Salt causes ice to melt and 
the melting ice withdraws heat from the surround- 
ing substances, and so lowers their temperature, 
causing them to freeze. The finer the ice the 
sooner it will melt. 

When the liquid is frozen, remove the paddle, 
pack firm with a spoon, place a paper over the 
top of the can, then the lid w^ith a cork in the top. 
Draw off all the water and fill the bucket with 
ice until the can is covered. Let stand for an 
hour or so. Do not add salt to the ice when pack- 
ing the cream. 

LEMON ICE 

(2 quarts) 

1 qt. water juice 6 lemons 

2 e. sugar 



198 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Dissolve the sugar in the hot water. Add lemon 
juice and freeze. 

PINEAPPLE SHERBET 
( 1 gallon ) 

1 qt. water 1 qt. can grated pineapple 

1 egg white 2 c. sugar 

2 lemons 

Dissolve sugar in hot water, add fruit and 
lemon juice, and when partially frozen add the 
egg white, beaten stitf and dry. After the egg is 
added the freezer must be turned very fast. 
When adding the egg white, 1 c. cream may be 
added also. The name sorbet is sometimes given 
to a sherbet when cream has been added. 

APRICOT ICE 

1 pt. dried apricots (cooked 1 pt. sugar 
and strained) 1 fit. water 

1 tbsp. lemon juice 

Dissolve sugar in hot water. Add fruit and 
freeze. When frozen remove paddle and pack 
until ready for use. 

PHILADELPHIA ICE CREAM 
( I gallon ) 

3 pts. sweet cream (2 c. maple syrup may be 

1 tbsp. vanilla used in place of brown 

1 c. b. sugar sugar) 

Scald cream, add sugar and when dissolved add 
flavorins: and freeze. 



yilEKBETS AND ICE CREAMS 19'J 

FRUIT ICE CREAM 
( 1 gallon ) 

2 ([tn. thin cream 2 c. crushed strawberries 

2^ c. sugar 

Scald cream and sugar. Add the fruit, crushed. 
Freeze. Any fresh fruit may be used. 

NEAPOLITAN. ICE CREAM 

Make a thin custard as directed in Chapter 
XIII, and freeze. Nuts and fruits, either fresh or 
candied, may be added. 

Caramel creams are made by using one and one- 
half as much sugar as the recipe calls for, heat- 
ing it slowly over a fire until the sugar has melted 
and browned slightly. Eemove and pour over this 
water to cover and stir until it is dissolved. Use 
this with the cream or custard in place of the re- 
quired amount of sugar. 

We use more sugar, as caramelizing destroys 
some of the sweetness. Great care must be taken 
not to burn the sugar as it will then have a bitter 
taste. 

Gelatine in Creams 

Gelatine is a protein obtained from animals and 
vegetables. The animal gelatine is made by cook- 
ing the bones of young calves in water, strain- 
ing the liquid, allowing it to congeal, and then 
evaporating it. Vegetable gelatine is made from 
a sea weed. 



200 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Soak gelatine first in cold water until soft, then 
add boiling water or liquid to it and put it in a 
cold place to congeal. 

The directions on the packages of gelatine you 
buy are a safe guide to follow in the preparation 
of the dishes. In creams, gelatine gives body and 
food value to the dish. One oz. of gelatine will 
congeal 1 qt. liquid. When using it with a custard 
cream i/o oz. (i^ tbsp.) of gelatine should be used. 

1. Why do we not draw off the water while the cream 
is freezing? 

2. Why do Ave draw off the water and use no salt 
when packing cream? 



CHAPTER XXII 

DIETARY STANDARDS 

Statements of the amounts and kinds of food 
needed or taken by people of various climates, 
ages and occupations are called "dietary stand- 
ards," or "balanced rations." In studying these 
standards the aim is : 

(a) to determine the food requirements under 
different conditions. 

(b) to determine the amount of food neces- 
sary under different conditions. 

(c) to classify the foods that will give us the 
required nutrition. 

To secure a proper combination of the proteins 
on the one hand and the fats and carbohydrates 
on the other, in such proportions as to provide the 
necessary material for the building and repair of 
the body and to generate energy for its work, and 
at the same time not to complicate the process of 
excretion or elimination, is one of the problems of 
dietetics. 

Every act of ours is a breaking down of body 
tissue. It makes no difference if the body is kept 
practically still, the very acts of breathing and 

201 



202 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

thinking break down cells and tissue. The break- 
ing down of these cells and tissues produces a 
waste substance, which may be compared to the 
ashes left after wood or coal has been burned. 
This body waste should be thrown off as fast as 
it accumulates or we must pay for the storage 
with, headaches, indigestion, or severe illness. 
Nature provides several avenues through which 
this may be eliminated ; namely, the skin, the kid- 
neys, the lungs, and the intestines; and it is our 
duty to aid these organs in their work by making 
a careful selection of the kinds and amounts of 
food we eat. 

Physical and I\Iental Effects of Pood 

A very wise person said, ''The food we eat de- 
termines our efficiency," meaning that a man or 
woman is well and strong and capable of working 
and thinking according to the amount and kind of 
food he eats. If every mother or teacher would 
give one-tenth as much time to teaching her 
children how to select foods and how to eat, as 
she does to any one of the other subjects in school, 
the coming generations would be marvels of 
strength and intelligence. 

Among the lower animals the meat eaters 
are fierce and dangerous and of little or no value 
to man. While the vegetable or grass eating ani- 
mals are mild and gentle and of service to the 



DIETARY STANDARDS 203 

world. Investigations into tlie lives of degener- 
ates and criminals prove that with but few ex- 
ceptions they were inveterate meat eaters. 

To make a comparison between educated people 
and animals or degenerates is perhaps too strong, 
yet it is a fact that the average American family 
eats too much meat. A liberal service of meat, 
once a day, eaten in combination with coarse 
vegetables could not possibly injure any one who 
is well, and in fact, the animal protein which meat 
contains cannot well be supplied by other foods ; 
but the families who serve one and sometimes 
two meats at each meal are committing nothing- 
short of a crime towards their own bodies. 

Meat putrifies sooner than any other food, and 
for that reason should be eaten with coarse vege- 
tables, corn bread, and the like, so as to insure its 
rapid movement along the alimentary canal. This 
putrification causes various disorders of body and 
mind, known as headaches, irritableness, indiges- 
tion. 

Appetite as a Standard 

The statement is sometimes made that if a per- 
son would follow his appetite, no mistake would 
be made as to selection of diet. It takes only a 
moment's time to satisfy a person that this state- 
ment is untrue. Some people, by following their 
appetites, become unduly stout or have all sorts 



204 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

of digestive disturbances while others become 
very thin and show a lack of nourishing food. If, 
however, from year to year a person is strong and 
well from eating the things suggested by appetite, 
it is a safe guide until disorders arise. People 
have been known to learn to like foods that had 
been very distasteful to them; such as, tomatoes, 
celery, olives, spinach, etc. 

OVER-EATING 

Many times whole meals which otherwise would 
serve as '* balanced rations" are wasted as a re- 
sult of over-eating. When the stomach is over- 
loaded with food the mass becomes so compact 
that digestion is practically impossible, and fin- 
ally a large part is eliminated from the body as 
waste. 

Dietary Statements 

Fuel value of food is estimated by a measure 
termed "calories," which you will study in detail 
in more advanced work, but for our purpose it 
serves just as well to use the gram and the ounce 
as estimates, and it is well to keep these propor- 
tions in mind : 

28 grams equal 1 ounce, 16 ounces equal 1 pound. 

While much valuable work is being done with 
the purpose in view of determining the amount 
of food which a person of a given age, sex, and 



DIETARY STANDARDS 



205 



degree of activity should eat, not enough has been 
accomplished as yet to make it possible to lay 
down any hard and fast rules. The most com- 
monly accepted American standard is that of 
Dr. C. F. Langworth, that the average adult in 
the United States should daily be supplied with : 
Protein 4 oz. Fats 5 oz. Carbohydrates 13 oz. 

Making an approximate of 22 oz. of solid food 
per day besides from three to six pints of liciuid. 

From these figures, for a man who exerts much 
physical energy, the following menu is suggested 
and contains the above amounts of food propor- 
tions : 



BREAKFAST 

1 prepared wheat biscuit 
1 Clip medium cream 

1 tbsp. sugar 

2 slices of toast 

2 one-inch cubes of butter 
y4. cup coffee 
% cup cream 

1 egg, poached 



LUNCH 

1 cup chicken soup 

2 water wafers 

1 baked potato (medium) 
macaroni with cheese sauce 
(1 cup) 

1 apple fritter 

2 tbsp. maple syrup 
Yi pint milk 



DINNER 



1 cup cream of tomato soup 

2 water wafers 

1 lamb chop broiled (lean) 
mashed potatoes (1 cup) 

2 parker house rolls 

2 one-inch cubes butter 
1 tbsp. jelly 



1 slice pineapple — lettuce 

mayonnaise — nuts 

1 water wafer 

rice pudding (i/4 cup) 

with cream 
lA inch cube cheese 
4 tbsp. black coffee 



206 



FOOD AND CLOTHING 



For a teacher or man or woman of indoor voca- 
tion the daily supply should be : Protein, 3 oz. ; 
fats, 3 oz. ; carbohydrates, 11 oz. 



BREAKFAST 

J^ orange 
1 cup oatmeal (steamed; 

1 cup medium cream 

2 tbsp. sugar 
2 slices toast 

1 one-inch cube butter 
1 cup milk 



LUNCH 

J/2 cup cream corn soup 
2 wafers 

1 three-inch cube white 
fish (tomato sauce) 

34 cup creamed potatoes 

2 slices whole wheat 
l)read 

] one-inch cube butter 
4 stewed prunes with 

juice 
1 cup milk 



DINNER 



1 slice roast beef (1 cub. 1 one-inch cube butter 



inches) 

1 medium sized boiled 
potato 

y'2 cup spinach 
]/,; cup cottage cheese — 
cream 

2 slices white bread 



1 tbsp. grape jelly 
J4 cup apple, celery and 
nut salad (mayonnaise 
dressing) 
1 water wafer 
^ cup thin custard 
water 



For the average school girl of from twelve to 
sixteen years of age the following amounts are 
approximate in temperate climates: Protein, 
31/2 oz. ; fats, 2^ oz. ; carbohydrates, 10 oz. 



DIETARY STANDARDS 



207 



BREAKFAST 



3/2 cup oatmeal with 1 


1 


banana 


2 


Yj cup medium cream 


1 


1 tbsp. sugar 


1 


1 graham muffin 


1 


2 one-inch cubes butter 


1 


4 tbsp. maple syrup 




1 cup milk 


V2 



r.UNCH 

cup vegetable soup 

wafers 

slice lean bacon, crisp 

baked potato (medium) 

one-inch cube butter 

three-inch cube corn 

bread 

cup baked custard 



DINNER 



1 lean chop, broiled 
(well d(me) 

J4 cup creamed turnips 
34 cup steamed peas 

2 stocks young celery 
2 parker house rolls 



1 tbsp. jelly 
Yi cup lettuce and hai'd- 
boiled egg salad 
(mayonnaise) 
water or milk 
1 baked apple — cream 



Needless Buying of Expensive Foods 

With people generally, and especially those witli 
moderate incomes, the mistake is made of buying' 
expensive foods or those out of season when tlie 
less expensive fruits, vegetables, or meats wouhl 
serve the purpose just as well. Strawberries, at 
25 cents per box, tomatoes at 20 cents per pound 
or grapefruit at 15 cents apiece, are luxuries, yet- 
it is often those who can least afford it that in- 
dulge in these extravagances. On the other hand 
a woman may be very anxious to do the best she 
can for her family on a limited income, but is ig- 



208 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

norant of the nutritive value of the cheaper foods 
and how to cook them to the best advantage; Eggs 
at 30 cents per dozen can be replaced with cheaper 
cuts of meat, beans, peas, etc., which will give 
three times as much nourishment for the money 
expended. 

Housekeepers need to learn that there is a 
higher nutritive value in some of the cheaper 
foods when compared in price with the costlier 
kinds ; that the present methods of cooking in the 
average home must be improved, and that to make 
the table more attractive will be an excellent 
means for making the home life more enjoyable. 

1. What do we mean by "balanced rations?" 

2. How will carefully selected foods effect onr gen- 
eral health? 

3. Compare the inclinations of meat eatino: animals 
to vegetable or grass eating animals. 

4. In M'hat way might a heavy and excessive meat 
diet affect our disposition? 

5. Give reasons why it might affect our health. 

6. Why do M-e need to eat coarse vegetables, as cab- 
bage, turnips, celery, etc. ? 

7. Explain why we should not allow our appetite to 
govern our selection of food. 

8. What are the dangers of over-eating? 

9. Why does a man at hard work need more fats 
and protein in proportion than the man of indoor life? 

10. Why does a teacher or pupil need less food, and 
in different proportions, than the man* who works in tlie 
field all dav ? 



CHAPTER XXIIT 

PLANNING MEALS 

It is the duty of every liomekeeper to plan her 
meals at least a day ahead. After breakfast, make 
out the menu for dinner, luncheon and the break- 
fast foT the next morning. In doing this, three 
points are to be considered : 

First, will your meals, as planned, contain each 
of the food principles as given in dietary stand- 
ards, known to be necessary to a well-balance<l 
meal for body building. 

Second, have you made arrangements to have in 
the house all of the materials necessary to the ful- 
filling of the menu ? In many homes the meals are 
so poorly planned that when the preparation is 
started, the coft'ee can will be found empty, the 
sugar used, the baking powder or the butter or 
the flour vessels empty. At the last minute, the 
children or the husband is sent to the nearby 
grocery store or to some neighbor for help. For- 
tunately, the teaching of domestic science in 
schools is fast doing away with the *' borrowing 
housewife. ' ' 

Third, have you planned to use up all your 

209 



210 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

left-overs? In no other way can a good house- 
keeper show her skill more than in making; 
palatable and attractive dishes from the remnants 
left of other meals. 

This much of the preliminary done, we shall 
consider each of the steps in detail. From our 
study of balanced meals we know that we must 
have protein, fats, carbohydrates and besides 
these, bulk, meaning coarse vegetables, fruits, or 
breads, which may or may not have food value, 
but which will aid in carrying the other foods 
along the alimentary tract. For many years 
farmers have known that to keep their stock in 
the most healthful condition they must feed them, 
besides grains, a "roughage," straw, hay, etc. 
People, generally, are just beginning to realize 
that they too must have ' ' roughage, ' ' obtained by 
eating such food stuffs as celery, cabbage, turnips, 
lettuce, and some fruits cooked with the skins, as 
cranberry sauce, unpeeled apples and the like. 

From the chapter on ''Foods" in this text, it 
is easy to determine from what sources the differ- 
ent food principles may be obtained. This dinner 
was served in the home of a very intelligent fam- 
ily : Eoast beef, gravy, baked beans, cheese souf- 
fle, bread, butter, water. Notice that the foods 
were all proteins, practically no carbohydrates, 
and very little fats. Any one of the three pro- 
teins, with potatoes, or rice and a coarse vegetable, 



PLANNING MEALS 211 

bread, and some fruit would liave been more 
wholesome, more digestible and less expensive. 

Of What Meals Should be Composed 

A breakfast should, if possible, consist of fruit, 
cereal and cream, eggs, or crisp bacon, or fish; 
bread, butter and a drink and, perhaps, a syrup. 
A luncheon should consist of a heavy soup, some 
of the proteins, potatoes, or rice, bread, butter, 
fruit arranged as a salad, and one of the light 
desserts of the custard variety. A dinner should 
consist of two vegetables, one of the coarse variety 
and one a starch, a meat, well cooked, a jelly or 
preserve, bread, butter, a salad of any variety ex- 
cept a meat, a dessert of w^ell-made pastry, per- 
haps, small piece of cheese, and a drink. A clear 
soup served at the beginning of a dinner is a good 
addition. 

Service 

There are two forms of service, family service, 
where the food for the whole meal is placed on 
the table at once, and. formal service, where the 
foods of the different classes are served separ- 
ately or in courses. 

The family service is undoubtedly the easier, 
though not the most attractive way of serving 
and is most frequently used in families where 
there is only one pair of hands to carry on the 



212 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

work and where the conservation of strength and 
time are the main problems. Even in this simple 
service the dishes should be made to look neat and 
attractive and the table should be well-arranged. 
In the formal service, the courses for the dif- 
ferent meals and their order of serving is as fol- 
lows: 





BREAKFAST 


LUNCHEON 


1. 


Fruit 


1. 


Heavy soup or a fruit 


2. 


Cereal 


2. 


Light meat with vege- 


■S. 


SimpL 


e egg or meat 


tables, bread 




dish 


, bread 3. 


Salad 


4. 


A sweet (cakes or waf- 4. 


Dessert 




fie, 


synip) 5. 


Drink 


5. 


Drink 


DINNER 






1. 


Relish (tart drink or 


canape) 




2. 


Cocktail (fruit or fish) 




3. 


Clear soup 






4. 


Fish (with potatoes, 


bread and relish) 




5. 


A roast, two vegetables, bread, sweet. 




6. 


Water ice. 






7. 


Salad 






8. 


Dessert 






9. 


Cheese — water crackers 




10. 


Black coffee — mints 





Repetition of Foods and Flavors 

Care must be taken not to repeat a food or a 
flavor in a meal. In the formal dinner, if the cock- 



PLANNING :\IEALS 213 

tail is a fruit, the salad should be a vegetable; 
if the roast is beef, and a fowl or fish course is to 
be served, a vegetable soup should be used; if 
the roast is fowl the soup may be beef, or vege- 
table. Often at dinners, nuts are used as many as 
three times ; on the table, on the salad, in the des- 
sert. This should never be, and the hostess who 
serves chicken soup at the beginning of her 
luncheon and chicken salad later on, displays 
very bad taste. Oysters are often repeated at a 
dinner, as oyster soup, or cocktail followed by 
oyster dressing with the tui'key, or scalloped 
oysters ; all of which go to show how little thought 
is given to the planning of satisfactory meals. 

A Study of Household Expenses 

1. Make a list of the different necessary foods used 
in every household, with the prices as used. 

2. Make a trip to the market with a lesson on how to 
select the best foods; also a trip to the butcher shop to 
make a study of meat cuts, etc. 

3. Work out the menus for the meals for a day for 
a family of four that will cost not over 50 cents. 

4. Take up the expense of the average household — 
lights, heat, water, repairs, and study ways and means 
of economy in each. 

5. Study the cost of clothing for men, women, and 
children, and the ways and means of economy along this 
line. 

6. Work out the division of a man's salary which is 
$520 per year, for a family of four, rent to pay or build- 



214 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

ing and loan payments to meet. Give one week's kitchen 
expense in full with each day's menu worked out. 

In working out this division of salary, make an 
allowance for the yearly expense under these 
items, — rent, heat, lights, clothes, food, new fur- 
niture, replacing broken dishes and kitchen uten- 
sils, doctor, dentist or medicine, gifts, amusement, 
carfare, church, magazines, papers, school books, 
stationery and accessories. Under accessories will 
be included tooth brushes and powder, pins, toilet 
articles, etc. When itemizing the clothing for each 
member of the family, make a complete list needed 
for summer and winter with ways of economizing 
for each. 



DOMESTIC ART 

CHAPTER XXIV 

TEXTILES 

Olotli from which garments are made is of one 
of two fibers — animal or vegetable. Animal fibers 
are silk, wool, mohair. Vegetable fibers are cotton 
and flax. 

Animal fibers are characterized by their com- 
position of protein and sulphur, so plainly de- 
tected by the o.dor when portions are burned. This 
is one of the surest tests of the difference between 
an animal and a vegetable fabric — the odor 
evolved on burning. Animal fibers are made up 
of tubes which are elastic in appearance and have 
the power to shrink or elongate under certain 
conditions. 

Wool is the covering of the skin of sheep — a 
mass of short, kinky hair. Under a magnifying 
glass, each hair is seen to be made up of scales, 
piled one upon the other, somewhat as fish scales. 
These scales may over-lap each other nearly their 
full length or may be pulled out until only the tip 
edges are touching. 

215 



216 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Mohair is the long silky hair of angora goats. 
In structure it resembles wool, with the exception 
that its scales lie very close together with very 
little lap. This gives it its luster and stiffness. 

Silk is the continuous thread spun from the 
cocoon of the silk worm. In structure, when mag- 
nified, the threads show a smooth surface, like 
firm gelatine. This gives to it its softness and its 
luster. 

Vegetable fibers are made up of tubes composed 
of small cells which form fibers. These cells are 
easily broken apart, giving the fibers this char- 
acteristic : when a vegetable fiber thread is broken 
it snaps, while the animal fiber threads gradually 
pull apart. 

Cotton is the lint of a plant which grows in 
warm countries. This lint is separated from the 
seed, carded, spun into thread and woven into 
various cloths. (Head cotton culture in an agri- 
culture text.) 

Linen is made from the fiber of the flax plant. 
It is grown to some extent in this country, but 
more extensively in Ireland, Holland, and other 
European countries. When it has attained its 
growth, it is pulled up by the roots, the seeds 
removed and the straws tied in bundles and 
thrown in water to soak about one week. This 
is called retting. Eetting causes the hard cellulose 
on the outside of the plant to decompose and slip 



TEXTILES 217 

off. When the retting is during exactly the right 
length of time the linen has a luster. If the straw 
is left in the water too long we have a dull looking 
cloth. 

Weaving. All fibers are first spun into threads 
and these threads woven into cloth. Some are 
colored before they are woven, and in others the 
cloth is colored or stamped. 

Cotton cloths. Cotton is much used for under- 
clothes, dresses, waists and skirts and is made 
in various weaves and has numerous names; but 
the standard cloths are : 

1. For underclothes — muslin, longcloth, nain- 
sook and cambric. 

2. For wash dresses and waists — lawn, calico, 
crepe, pique, and ginghams. 

3. For separate skirts — Indian head, crash, 
heavy pique, and poplin. 

These goods will shrink, and it is wise to have 
them shrunk by soaking them in boiling water 
for 30 minutes, drying and ironing smooth with a 
very hot iron, before they are made into gar- 
ments. 



CHAPTER XX 

PLAIN SEWING 

It is necessary to know something of the dif- 
ferent stitches and seams with their appropriate 
use, before attempting to apply them in garment 
making. Seams and stitches may be ripped and 
made over, but in some cases the appearance of 
the garment is spoiled, and it is much better to 
practice the various seams and stitches on odd 
pieces of cloth, until their use and making is un- 
derstood. 

The thimble, a hood of silver, gold, or aluminum 
is to be worn on the middle finger of the right 
hand for use in pushing the needle through the 
goods. Most girls must be taught to use a thimble, 
but its use must be insisted upon on account of 
the danger that the needle will break the skin of 
the fingers and hand. 

The needle, a smooth slender steel piece used 
to carry the thread, is made in various sizes and 
lengths. We may buy them in packages all of one 
size or in assorted sizes, with numbers ranging 
from 5's to 10 's, etc. The small numbers are for 
the coarse thread, the higher numbers for the 
fine thread. A No. 8 needle will carry thread from 
60 to 80, No. 5 needle, thread from 30 to 40. 

218 



PLAIN 8EWIXG 219 

The thread, hard twists of cotton, linen or silk 
fiber, is manufactured in practically every shade 
and size. For convenience it is wound on spools in 
lengths from 50 to 200 yards. The sizes of the 
thread are designated by numbers and letters. 
When selecting cotton thread for a certain ma- 
terial, buy the number that is the same size as 
the warp of the cloth. In hand sewing, measure 
the thread from the hand to the shoulder to de- 
termine the length. Beginners generally use too 
long threads. It is an economy of time and en- 
ergy to thread a needle often rather than to use 
the extra energy in pulling a long thread through 
and untying and unfastening the knots that long 
threads make. 

To thread a needle. Break or cut the thread 
from the spool, twist the end between the thumb 
and finger until it is pointed, then force it through 
the eye of the needle. Do not bite tluj thread from 
the spool or wet the end of the thread in the 
mouth. These practices are unsanitary and wet 
thread soils the work. 

The stitches. Bastings, — hasty stitches made in 
garments to hold goods in place until permanent 
stitches are made. There are three basting stitches 
used, even hasting — the stitches and spaces are of 
even length, about % inch long, and are used in 
shoulder, under arm and skirt seams ; uneven hast- 
ing — the stitches are of uneven length usually two 



220 



FOOD AND CLOTHING 



^ ■ ^y- ^-y-y j^yv Jr /^^^7"Z^7^^ ^r / >.^ 





g 
h 



.<.^ ^ .^ ^ ^ 



(a) overcasting. 

(b) even basting. 

(c) uneven basting. 

(d) diagonal basting. 

(e) running stitch. 

(f) stitclTing or back stitch. 

(g) fell seam, machine and whipped edge, 
stitched it is sometimes called a tailored seam, 
(h) overhand seam showing one edge overcast, 
(i) French seam. 



When machine 



PLAIN SEWING 221 

short and one long stitch is taken. This basting- 
is used in hems, etc. ; diagonal hasting — the 
stitches are taken in the goods in a vertical line, 
from y^ to 2 inches apart. Thijs basting is used 
mostly in tailoring when paddings and stiffening 
are fastened together. 

Permanent stitches are made in place of machine 
stitches; running stitch, the stitches are of even 
length and very small, often only two threads of 
the goods between stitches; back stitch, each new 
stitch is begun in the goods where the last stitch 
finished, an imitation of machine work; whipping 
stitch, the threads of the goods are taken up by the 
needle, then the edge of the goods. Used in hems. 

Seams constitute the manner of fastening edges 
of materials together: 

Plain seams are made by sewing the edges of 
two materials from i/4 to 1 inch from the edges. 

Open seams have the edges of the plain seams 
pressed open and over-cast. 

French seams have the edges of the goods first 
made into a plain seam on the right side of the 
goods, then this seam is trimmed very near to the 
raw edges turned in to the wrong side and stitched. 

Fell seams have a plain seam made on the right 
side, one edge of the cloth in the seam is trimmed 
very close to the stitching and the other folded 
over the short edge, turned down and stitched. 
This is used in underclothes, shirts, tailored waists 



222 



FOOD AND CLOTHING 



a. Overt- a s t 
edges Of button- 
hole. 

b. Worked but- 
ton-hole. One end 
fanned, the other 
barred. 



c. d. Hook and 
eye fastened in 
place with button- 
hole or blanket 
stitch. 



e. Blind - eye 
made with blanket 
stitch. 



f. The blind- 
eye in process of 
making. 



g. To sew on a 
two-hole button. 



h. To sew on a 
four-hole button. 




PLATE V 



PLAIN SEWING 223 

and suits. Tlie wide edge in this seam should be 
folded toward the back. 

Overhanded seams are made w^itli the edges of 
the two pieces of cloth folded back the width of a 
seam, then the creased edges placed together and 
whipped. 

To make button-hole stitch. Pull the thread 
through the goods once, place the needle through 
the goods again, bring the threads from the eye of 
the needle around its point and then pull the 
needle through. This will make a knot or ' ' purl ' ' 
on the edge of the cloth. 

Button-holes should be cut, their length with 
the length of the goods, and may be made with 
rounding ends, where there is no strain on the 
ends, or with one end or both ends barred, where 
there is a great strain. In goods that frays very 
easily the edges should be overcast before the 
button-hole is worked. 

Hooks and eyes should be lightly fastened in 
place by a basting thread, and then made per- 
manent with the button-hole stitch. 

Plackets are finishings for openings of skirts 
at the belts, or for shirt sleeves at the cuff. The 
continuous placket, is made by sewing the strip of 
cloth, cut lengthwise of the goods, straight around 
the edge of the placket, turning the top edge over 
the raw seam and whipping it down. This placket 



224 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

is best for the skirts of wash dresses and should 
he from 9 to 11 inches deep. 



PLATE VI 

(a) The faced edge. (b) The bound edge. 



Bound edge. Extended finishing of an edge. 
Faced edge. The entire finishing is turned back 
on the goods. 

The different steps to be followed in making the 
four foundation garments are given in order of 
their application. When the making of these four 
garments, with their various problems, is mas- 
tered, all plain sewing will be simply a matter of 
application and judg-ment. 



PLAIN SEWING 



225 




PLATE VII 

Darning-. Suitable for mending- table linen, lace, stockings 
or woolens. 



226 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Use of Patterns 

There are many companies ayIio make good, re- 
liable patterns. These patterns state length of 
skirt, bust and waist measure, and the number of 
yards of material, of stated widths, required. 
When selecting a waist pattern, buy according to 
bust measures ; when selecting a skirt pattern, buy 
according to waist measure. To obtain waist 
measure, place tape around smallest part of waist. 
For bust measurement, take loose measure around 
the fullest part of bust well down in front and 
slightly raised at back. 

Read carefully all printed explanation found 
with pattern. Follow these instructions closely, 
and thus avoid mistakes in cutting and putting the 
pieces together. Pin the entire pattern upon the 
cloth before cutting. This will eliminate waste 
of cloth. 

Plan of Skirt JMaking 

1. Baste seams together and fit to figure. 

2. INIake permanent seams (French or Fell). 

3. Press all seams. 

4. Make placket (continuous placket preferred). 

5. Finish top with band ^ inch wide (on straight 
of goods) or face at waist line. 

6. Hem or face at desired length. (To obtain length: 
measure from floor, with a ruler or gage, the distance the 
skirt is desired from the floor, and mark with chalk or 
pins.) 



PLAIN SEWING 227 

To Make Waist 

1. Baste shoulder and under-arm seams. 

2. Fit to figure. 

3. Make permanent seams. (French seam in thin ma- 
terial, fell seam in heavy material.) 

4. Hem or put box plait on right side of waist, face 
left side. 

5. Finish at neek with band or collar. 

6. ]\Iake seams in sleeve to correspond with seams in 
waist. 

7. Put sleeve in by matching notches in sleeve and 
eye of arm (bind or fell). 

8. Obtain desired length of sleeve and finish with 
cuff or facing. 

9. Finish bottom with band or narrow hem. 

To Make Corset Cover 

1. Baste seams and fit. 

2. ]\Iake narrow French seams. 

3. Hem right side, face left side of front. 

4. Face arms, eye and top, with narrow bias strips 
turned to the wrong side and stitched. 

5. Finish at waist with 34 -inch band or narrow hem. 

6. Work small button-holes, cut lengthwise of mate- 
rial. Sew on buttons. 

7. Trim with lace or embroidery. 

To Make Drawers 

1. Stitch front and back seams. 

2. jNIatch front and back seams at crotch and stitch — 
thus forming the legs. All seams are narrow French 
seams. 



PLAIN SEWING 229 

3. Allow nine inches opening at back or side for 
placket. 

4. Finish with continnous placket. 

5. P'inish at waist with straiglit or shaped band. 

6. AVork button-hole and sew on buttons or sew on 
tape. 

7. Hem legs with narrow hem or facing, then tinish 
with trimming. 

To Repair Garments or Linens 

Three methods are used to repair worn or torn 
garments and linens; namely, patching, mending 
and darning. 

Patching is used mostly on cotton goods. The 
rent is cut into the smallest possible square, the 
corners clipped, and the edges folded to the wrong- 
side. Place under this a piece of the goods, the 
length of the patch with the length of the goods 
in the garment, and the stripes or figures in exact 
line with those that were cut out. Whip down the 
folded edges of the square, turn to the w^rong side, 
cut the patch one inch from the wdiipped edge, fold 
under the edges and fasten to the goods with the 
running or wiiipping stitch. 



PLATE VTTT 
a. Continuous placket showing straiglit .strip of goods 
sewed to tlie cut edges. b. Continuous placket witli the 
.straiglit strip folded in place and ready for the band or finishing, 
c. Snagged or torn place in cotton or linen garments. d. 
Patch for linen or cotton garments, f. Snagged or torn place 
in woolen garment, g. Mended place in woolen garment. The 
rough edges are pressed flat, then with a raveling from the 
goods the edges are darned flat. All raw edges are trimmed 
with the scissors after the darning. 



230 FOOD AND CLOTHING 

Mending is used mostly on woolens, mohair and 
table linens. When mending, if the rent is very 
large, a piece of the goods is fastened under the 
tear, the edges pressed flat upon it, and with ravel- 
ings from the goods, the edges are woven back in 
place. In very fine goods a long hair, is often 
used in place of the thread in the weaving. 

Darning is used mostly on table linen, knitted 
goods, stockings and laces. Darning is weaving 
back in place threads that have been removed or 
worn away. The illustration shows how the threads 
are first placed in the length of the goods and then 
another thread woven back and forth through 
them. 



INDEX 



Abbreviations, 24, 25. 
Accessories, 21. 
Apples, I'JO. 

baked, 1!);5. 

baked — Creole style, 1!)2. 
Apple sauce, 192, 193. 
Apricot ice, 198. 
Asparagus, canning of, 127. 

preparation of, 48, 49 

B 
Bacteria, defined, 159. 
Baking powder, wlien used. 96. 
Baking powder biscuits, 97, 98. 
Baking, tenii)erature for, 170. 

time for, 170. 
Balanced rations, 20, 2i. 
Bananas, 190. 
Bean puree, 181. 
Beef, composition of, 02, (K!, 64. 

creamed, 147. 

effect of heat on, 135. 

food value of, 135, 130. 

tender cuts of, 135. 

ways of cooking, 64, 05. 
Beef stew, 69, 70. 
Beets, boiled, 48. 
Blackberry jelly, 125. 
Blanc mange, 133. 
Boneing a roast, 137, 138. 
Bound edge, 224. 
Bread, brown, 165, 160. 

German coffee, 164. 

nut, 165. 

white, 163. 

whole wheat. 163, 164. 
Bread griddle cakes, 108. 
Bread omelet, 38. 
Bread pudding, 132, 133. 
Brisket, boiled, 69. 
Brown bread, 165, 166. 
Brown gravv, 66. 



]>utter, (h'fined, 151. 

Butter or other fats, how to 

cream, 168, 169. 
Button-holes, 223. 
Button-hole stitch, 223. 

C 
Cabbage, boiled, 46, 47. 

boiled with pork, 47. 

creamed, 47. 
Cake, angel food, 172, 173. 

causes for cracking, 171. 

causes for falling, 170. 

chocolate, 171. 

plain, 171. 

spice, 172. 

sponge, 173, 174. 

sunshine, 173. 

white, 171. 
Cake icings, 174, 175. 
Candied orange peel, 60. 
Candied sweet potatoes, 49. 
Candy making, 56, 57. 
Canning. 126. 
Carving a fowl. 142, 143. 
Carrots, creamed, 50, 51. 
Cauliflower, creamed, 47. 
Cereals, defined, 86, 87. 

digestion of, 88. 

general directions for cook- 
ing, 87, 88. 
Cheese, composition of, 82. 

cottage. 85. 

digestibility of, 83. 

how- made." 82, 83. 

why served with pie, 83. 
Cheese balls, 84. 
Cheese sandwiches, 85. 
Cheese sauce, 89, 90. 
Cheese straws, 156, 157. 
Ciiicken, baked, 141. 

creamed, 147. 



i31 



232 



LNDEX 



dressing a, 139, 140. 

fried and cream gravy, 14U. 

smothered, 140. 
Chocolate cake, 171. 
Chocolate custard, 133. 
Chocolate nut fudge, 58, 51). 
Clear consomme, 179. 
Cocoa, composition of. 111. 112. 

how made, 112. 
Cocoanut cream candy, 58. 
Codfish, creamed, 77. 
CoiTee, boiled, 115. 

defined, 114. 

how to make, 114, 115. 

percolated, 115. 
Condiments, 144, 145. 
Cooked salad dressing. 183. 
Cooking, coagulation, 36. 

defined, 21. 

methods of, 22. 

things to remember Avhen, 17, 
18. 
Corn, green, 50. 
Cornmeal mutlins. 105, 106. 
Cornmeal mush, 88, 89. 
Corset cover, directions for 

making, 227. 
Cotton cloths, 217. 
Cotton-seed oil, 150. 151. 
Crabapple jelly, 125. 
Cranberry jelly, 125, 126. 
Cream filling, 105. 
Cream puff's, 104, 105. 
Cream of corn soup, 180. 
Cream of tartar, 96. 
Cream of tomato soup, 180, 181. 
Cream of wheat with dates, 88. 
('reamed dried beef. 69. 
Croquettes, 147, 148. 
Currants, 191. 
Custard pie, 154, 155. 
Custards, composition of, 130, 
131. 

firm, 131, 132. 

thin, 131. 

D 

Dietary statements. 204. 205. 
Dirt, defined, 159. 
Dish washing, 18. 
Domestic art, defined, 16, 



Domestic science, defined, 15. 
Dougiinuts, 101. 
Doughs and batters, 94, 95, 96. 
Drawers, directions for mak- 
ing, 227. 229. 
Dressing, 65. 
Dried beef, creamed, 69. 
Drop batters, 102. 
Dumjjlings, 99. 

E 
Egg sandwiches, 37. 
Eggs, as a thickening agent, 
130. 

composition of, 33. 34. 

golden-rod, 37. 

hard cooked or boiled, 36. 37. 

how they leaven. 103. 

how to tell fresh, 34. 

poached, 36. 

preserving, 35. 

scrambled, 38. 

soft cooked or "boiled," 36. 

why they spoil, 34, 35. 
Equipment, 10. 

F 
Fats, digestion of. 152, 153. 
Figs, 190. 
Fireless cooker, 23. 
Fish, classification of, 75, 76. 
Flank steak, rolled, 65. 
Foamy omelet, 38. 
Fondant, 59, 60. 
Food, 19. 
Fowls, 138. 
French dressing, 182. 
Fricasseed steak, 67. 
Fritters, 104. ' 
Fruit, 189, 190. 
Fruit dumplings. 193, 194. 

G 
Garments or linens, directions 

for repairing, 229, 230. 
German coffee bread. 164. 
German saute, 46. 
Gluten, test for, 94. 
Goose, baked, 141. 
(Jraham gems, 104. 
Grape jelly, 124, 125. 



INDEX 



233 



Grapes, 191. 

Griddle cakes, 107, 108. 

H 
Haul sandwiches. I'.i. 
Hamburg steak, 67. 
Hams, to cook smoked, 74. 
Hard sauce, 157, 158. 
Hash balls, 146. 
Heat, degrees of in the oven. 

24. 
degrees of in water, 24. 
Hooks and eyes, 223. 
Home economics, defined, 15. 
Hominy grits, 91. 
Hot fat, testing, 78. 
House keepers, 13, 14. 
Household expenses, a studv of, 

213, 214. 



JVI 



]Macaroni an gratin, 92. 

defined, 91. 

with tomato sauce, 92. 
Macaroon pudding, 134. 
Management, class, 11, 12. 
Marshmallows, 60, 61. 
Mayonnaise, 182, 183. 
Meals, of what they should be 

composed, 211. 
Meat pic. 145, 146. 
Mildew, defined, 159. 
Milk, composition of, 26, 27. 

how classified, 27, 28. 

why it sours. 28, 29, 30. 
:\Iince meat, 148, 149. 
Molds, defined, 159. 
Muffins. 102. 
Mutton, defined, 74. 75. 



Ice creams, composition of. 196. 

how to freeze, 196, 197. 

why salt is used in freez- 
ing, 197. 
Iced tea. 113, 114. 
Ice, apricot, 198. 

lemon, 197, 198. 
Ices and sherliets, 196. 
Icing, Caramel, 175. 

chocolate, 175, 176. 

white, 175. 
Instructions to pupils, 16. 



Jars, preparation of, 126. 
Jelly, blackberry, 125. 

crabapple, 125. 

cranberry, 125-126. 

defined, "123. 

grape, 124, 125. 

how made, 123, 124. 



Laboratory, in the, 16. 

Lard, defined, 151. 

Lemon ice, 197, 198. 

Lemonade, 116. 

Lesson, methods of conducting, 

14. 
Light rolls. 164, 165. 



N 

Xeedle, defined, 218. 

how to thread, 219. 
Needless buying of expensi\e 

foods, 207," 208. 
Nut bread, 165. 
Nut taffy, 58. 
Nuts, composition of, 151, 152. 

O 
Oatmeal cookies, 101, 102. 
Omelet, bread, 38. 

foamy, 38. 
Onions, creamed, 50. 
Onion dressing, 141. 
Orange marmalade, 128. 
Oranges, use of, 191. 
Over eating. 204. 
Oyster dressing, 141. 
Oyster soup, 79, 80. 
Oysters, 79. 

creamed. 80. 

scalloped, 80. 



Paraffin, use of, 124. 
Parker house rolls, 165. 
Pastry, 153. 
Patterns, use of. 226. 
Peanut brittle, 57. 
Pears, 190. 



234 INDEX 

r^as, creamed, 51, 52. Rice 

riiilailelphia ice cream, I'.l'S. 
Physical anil .nental eilects of 

food, 202, 203. 
Pickling, 128, 129. 
Pie, apple, 155, 156. 

banana, 192. 
Pie crust, 153, 154. 
Pies, berry, 156. 

cream, 155. 

one crust, 154. 155. 

why they are indigestible, 
153. 
Pineapple sherbet, 198. 
Plackets, defined, 223, 224. 
Plain cake. 171. 
Plan of skirt making, 226. 
Pork chop with dressing, 72, 

73. 
Pork, cooking of, 72. 

defined, 71, 72. 
Pot roast, 70. 
Potato, composition of the, 42, 

43. 
Potato balls, 77. 
Potato chips, 158. 
Potato soup, 180. 
Potatoes, baked. 45. 

baked on the half shell, 45, 
46. 

boiled. 44. 

boiled in jackets, 44. 45. 

effects of Meat on, 43. 

French fried, 158. 
Pour batters, 106, 107. 
Preserving, defined, 127, 128. 

eggs, 35. 
Prunes, 191, 192. 
Prune sauce, 193. 
Prune wnip, 193. 
Pupils, instructions to, 16. 

Q 
Quail, 142. 

Quick cinnamon rolls, 99. 
Quince, 191. 

R 
Repairing garments or linens, 

229, 230. 
Repetition of foods and flavors 

212, 213. 



baked, 90. 
with cheese sauce, 89. 

Rice pudding, 133, 134. 

Roast beef and brown gravy, 
137, 

Rolled oats — apple sauce, 90, 
91. 

Roquefort cheese salad dress- 
ing, 183. 



188. 

186. 
133. 
187. 



79. 



78. 



S 
Salad, a meat, 183 

as|)aragus, 185. 

cabbage, 185. 

chicken. 187, 

vy^i:, 188. 

gelatine, 185. 

how to serve 

pineapple, 186, 

potato, 184-185. 

tomato, 185. 

Waldorf, 186. 
Salads, defined, 181, 182 

fruit, 184. 

nu»at, 187. 

vegetable, 184. 
Salmon, scalloped, 78, 
Salmon bisque, 181. 
Salmon croquettes, 77, 
Salted cherries, 129. 
Sandwich dressing, 73. 
Saute liver and bacon. 
Seams, classification 

223. 
Service, 211, 212. 
Short cakes, 100. 
Shrimp, creamed, 80. 81. 
Skirt making, plan of, 226 
Soda biscuits, 98, 99. 
Soda, when used, 96. 
Soft dough, 97. 
Soft ginger bread, 106. 
Soup, 177, 178. 179. 
Southern waffles, 109. 
Spinach, preparation of. 
Starch, whv it thickens 
Steak, broi'led, 136. 

pan broiled, 136. 

planked, 136, 137. 
Sterilization, 121, 122 
Stiff doughs, 100. 



74. 

of. 



221, 



47. 48. 
31. 



123. 



INDEX 



235 



Stitches, bastiiij,', 21'.), 221. 

peiinaiR'nt, 221. 
Strawberries, 11)1. 
String beans, creamed, 51. 
Suet, defined, 151. 
Suet pudding, 157. 
Sugar, classification of, 53, 54, 

55. 
Sugar cookies, 100. 

individual recipe for. 100, 

101. 
Sugar, digestion of. 55. 

effect of heat upon, 55. 56. 
Suggestions to teachers, !). 
Sweetbreads, how to prei)are. 

71. 
Sweet potatoes, candieil. 40. 
Sweet potato puffs, 40. 



Table service (formal), 110, 

120. 
Table setting (informal i . ll'.i. 
Tamala pie, 140, 147. 
Tea, how made, 112, li;{. 

iced, 113, 114. 
Tea biscuits, 166. 
Tea cakes, 103. 
Tea and coffee, 110, 111. 
Teachers, suggestions to, 0. 
Tests, 96, 97. 
Tests for telling when a cake 

is done, 170. 
Textih^s, classification of, 215, 

216, 217. 
Tliiml)le, defined, 218. 
Thread, defined, 219. 



Timbail cases, 107. 
Toasted bun caps, 37. 
Tomato bouillon, 179. 
Tomato sauce, 92. 
Tomatoes, 49. 

scalloped, 49, 50. 
Turkey, baked, 140, 141. 
Turnips, 50. 

V 

Veal, defined, 70, 71. 
Vegetable foods, classification 

of, 40. 
Vegetable soup, 179, ISO. 
Vegetables, composition of, 39, 
40. 
cooking of, 41, 42. 
digestibility of, 40. 

W 
^^■affles, 108, 109. 

southern, 109. 
Waist, directions fiir making, 

227. 
Warmed over dishes, 144. 
Weaving, 217. 
Weights and measures, 25. 
Welsh rarebit I, 84. 
Welsh rarebit II, 84. 
Wliite bread, 163. 
White fish, baked — fresfi pt)tato 

l)alls, 76. 
White sauce. 30. 31. 
Whole wheat bread, 163, 164. 



Yeast, 160, 161, 162, 163. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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